THE  DIESEL  ENGINE 
IN  PRACTICE 


S84-yn 

^497 


MEGSON  AND  JONES 


UC-NRLF 


*B    273    757 


The  Libraij 

University 
Berkeley, 


H  S  Jones 
701  Rialtd 
San  Franc i 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2007  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/dieselengineinprOOmegsrich 


THE 

DIESEL  ENGINE 

IN 

PRACTICE 

.v;  KM  I:.,,. By. a:,..-::.: 
J.  E.  Megson  and  H.  S.  Jones 


TECHNICAL  PUBLISHING  COMPANY 

618  MISSION  STREET,    SAN  FRANCISCO 
1916 


Copyright    1916 

by 

TECHNICAL    PUBLISHING 

COMPANY 


r  '     ^ 


PREFACE 

The  interest  which  has  been  aroused  in  this  coun- 
try over  the  Diesel  engine  in  the  past  few  years  is  re- 
markable, but  not  nearly  so  much  so  as  the  engine 
itself.  Until  four  years  ago  there  were  but  few  build- 
ers of  the  Diesel  engine  in  America.  At  the  present 
time  there  are  twenty  or  more  manufacturers  building 
different  types  of  Diesel  engines,  several  of  them  adopt- 
ing foreign  designs.  Between  four  hundred  and  five 
hundred  plants  in  the  United  States  are  now  being 
operated  with  engines  of  the  Diesel  type,  ranging  from 
one  to  as  high  as  eighteen  engines  in  a  plant. 

It  has  been  the  duty  of  one  of  the  authors  to  visit 
most  of  these  plants  in  the  capacity  of  an  instructor, 
and  in  so  doing  he  became  acquainted  with  the  men 
who  are  operating  and  also  the  knowledge  they  had  of 
their  work. 

It  is  safe  to  state  that  not  ten  per  cent  of  the  oper- 
ators of  Diesel  engines  know  one-quarter  as  much 
about  their  engines  as  the  average  steam  engineer 
knows  about  his  engine.  Naturally  there  is  a  reason  for 
this — a  steam  engineer,  before  he  receives  his  license,  is 
generally  compelled  to  fire  a  boiler  for  two  or  three 
years  and  sometimes  longer.  Then  he  receives  a  fire- 
man's license,  and  in  two  or  three  years  more  of  firing 
the  boiler,  if  he  can  pass  a  certain  examination,  he  is 
eligible  to  a  third  class  steam  engineer's  license.  They 
do  all  this  work  gladly  to  learn  the  business. 

341237 


PREFACE 

With  the  men  who  are  employed  to  operate  the 
Diesel  engine  it  is  different.  No  license  is  required 
and  the  majority  of  men  who  are  employed  by  the  pur- 
chaser of  a  Diesel  engine  expect  to  be  chief  engineers 
in  three  weeks. 

The  Diesel  engine,  like  any  other  high  class  ma- 
chine, needs  proper  care  and  attention  to  get  the  best 
results.  In  fact  it  requires  much  more  attention  than 
the  steam  engine  and  closer  attention  due  to  its  larger 
number  of  working  parts,  but  any  average  steam  engi- 
neer after  three  weeks'  thorough  instruction  and  proper 
application  should  .be  able  to  properly  care  for  and 
operate  an  engine  of  this  type  without  the  least  trouble. 

It  is  the  purpose  of  this  book  to  give  all  engineers 
and  those  who  are  interested  in  the  Diesel  engine  the 
benefit  of  many  years  of  practical  experience  in  oper- 
ating the  Diesel  engine.  As  far  as  the  authors  know 
all  other  books  published  on  the  Diesel  engine  have 
omitted  to  deal  with  this  important  subject,  which  after 
all,  is  the  information  most  necessary  to  the  purchaser 
and  his  engineer;  and  it  is  to  them  that  this  book  is 
respectfully  dedicated. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


I.  Historical 5 

II.  Bases  of  Operation 10 

III.  Experience  With  Earlier  Installations       .  21 

IV.  Fuel  Oil      . 31 

V.  Effect  of  Altitude 40 

VI.  Operation  and  Care  of  Engines    ...  42 

VII.  Diesel's  Life  and  Reliability 60 

VIII.  Modern  Engines 66 

IX.  Semi-Diesels 86 

X.  Commercial  Situation 93 

XI.  Diesel  Applied  to  Marine  Purposes      .      .  106 

XII.  Internal  Combustion  Engines  at  P.  P.  I.  E.,  127 


Busch-Sulzer  Bros,  and  Mcintosh  &  Seymour  Co.  Diesel  Engine  Exhibits  at 
Panama -Pacific  International  Exposition 


THE  DIESEL  ENGINE 
IN  PRACTICE 


CHAPTER  I 
HISTORICAL 

Interest  in  the  Diesel  engine  is  so  widespread 
and  the  questions  presented  so  varied  that  it  may  be 
well  to  review  the  early  history  of  this  remarkable  in- 
vention. 

The  Diesel  engine  was  invented  in  1892  by  the 
late  Dr.  Rudolph  Diesel  of  Munich,  Germany.  The 
invention  was  the  result  of  years  of  painstaking  labor, 
and  the  one  point  that  stands  out  most  clearly  is  that 
had  not  Diesel  been  so  positive  regarding  the  cor- 
rectness of  his  mathematical  and  thermal  calculations 
he  would  not  have  been  so  persistent  with  the  actual 
construction  of  the  engine.  So  we  find  the  calcula- 
tions of  an  engineer  coupled  with  the  persistence  of 
a  genius  as  responsible  for  this  epoch-making  in- 
vention. 

In  the  first  Diesel  engine,  constructed  in  1893,  the 
piston  was  fitted  with  a  piston  rod  and  external  cross- 
head,  the  vertical  cylinder  having  no  water  jacket. 
The  cam  shaft  was  placed  very  low  and  the  valves 
were  operated  by   means  of  long  rods.     A  wrought 


6  THJi:    DIIS^SL;  ENGINE,  IN    PRACTICE 

iron  p'ipe' wi  til  "rivet  eel'"  flan'ges  was  used  for  storing 
starting  air  pressure  and  there  was  no  air  supply 
pump,  the  fuel  being  injected  directly.  This  engine 
never  ran,  as  at  the  first  injection  of  fuel,  the  engine 
being  driven  by  outside  power,  an  explosion  de- 
stroyed it.  This  proved  to  Dr.  Diesel,  however,  that 
pure  air  could  be  compressed  to  such  a  high  point  that 
fuel  injected  into  it  would  ignite  and  burn. 

A  second  crude  engine  was  then  built.  It  had  a 
base  similar  to  the  first,  but  was  provided  with  a 
water  jacketed  cylinder,  and  the  cam  shaft  was  placed 
higher.  The  most  important  difference  was  that  the 
injection  of  fuel  was  operated  by  air  supplied  by  a 
pump  driven  directly  from  the  engine.  The  second 
machine  would  not  run  and  was  always  a  source  of 
danger,  but  indicator  cards  were  obtained  during  the 
few  revolutions  that  it  did  operate.  The  first  two 
engines  together  proved  the  practical  possibility  of 
carrying  out  the  combustion  process  that  had  been 
developed  theoretically  years  before  and  which  had 
been  regarded  mpossible  by  the  technical  world. 

Patents  were  obtained  in  all  of  the  principal  coun- 
tries, those  obtained  in  England  bearing  the  date 
of  August,  1892.  The  patents  in  the  United  States 
were  taken  out  slightly  later  and  extended  for  seven- 
teen years,  the  life  of  a  patent  in  this  country.  During 
the  patent,  the  use  of  the  invention  was  limited  to 
one  licensee  in  each  of  the  principal  countries.  The 
late  Mr.  Adolphus  Busch  of  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  obtained 
the  sole  rights  to  Diesel's  patents  in  the  United  States 
and  Canada  after  a  thorough  •  investigation  had  been 
made  in  his  behalf  by  Colonel  E.  D.  Meier,  late  presi- 
dent  of   the   American   Society   of   Mechanical    Engi- 


HISTORICAL 


Fulton  Iron  Works  and  New  London  Ship  &  Engine  Co.  Fxhibits  at 
Panama-Pacific  International  Exposition 


8  ^     THE    DIESEL    ENGINEl   IN    PRACTICE 

neers.**'^*"'?lie'paldrfts,- fio^evef;' simply  stated  what  was 
to  be  done,  and  were  of  small  practical  value  from  an 
operating  standpoint,  as  the  actual  construction  of  the 
engine  had  hardly  been  started  at  this  time.  A  com- 
pany was  formed  in  the  United  States  called  the  Amer- 
ican Diesel  Engine  Company,  organized  to  build  and 
sell  the  engine  under  Diesel's  patents.  Mr.  Busch  was 
a  stockholder  in  this  company  but  his  principal  contri- 
bution lay  in  the  value  of  the  patents  he  had  acquired. 

In  1898  a  twin  cylinder  60  h.p.  engine  was  built, 
a  crude  but  practicable  machine,  which  was  placed  in 
commercial  operation  under  load,  being  the  first 
Diesel  engine  in  the  world  to  be  so  operated. 

The  question  is  frequently  asked  why  the  Diesel 
engine  has  made  such  strides  abroad  and  so  little  pro- 
gress has  been  made  in  this  country.  This  is  due  to 
several  reasons: 

First :  Coal  is  much  cheaper  in  the  United  States 
than  in  Europe  and  therefore  it  is  more  wastefully 
used;  while  the  leading  idea  in  Europe  is  economy 
in  operating  cost,  the  leading  idea  in  the  United  States 
is  economy  in  first  cost.  The  word  efficiency  is  un- 
known to  a  vast  proportion  of  businessmen  and  buyers 
of  machinery  in  this  country  while  abroad  it  forms 
the  basis  for  every  contract. 

Second:  The  steam  engine  in  America  is  much 
cheaper  than  abroad,  but  the  Diesel  engine  is  not  and 
will  never  be  a  cheap  engine.  It  aims  to  be  the  best 
engine  and  must  be  constructed  of  the  highest  class 
of  materials  with  the  most  skilled  workmanship.  This 
makes  it  difficult  for  it  to  compete  with  the  cheaper 
type  of  steam  engine  in  the  United  States.  We  are 
accustomed  to  engines  at  a  low  price  and  the  price 
of  the  Diesel  per  pound  seems  exorbitant. 


HISTORICAL  9 

Third :  The  lack  of  capital  on  the  part  of  the 
prospective  purchasers  and  the  high  rate  of  interest 
on  capital  and  investment  in  the  United  States  hinders 
the  advance  of  the  Diesel. 

Fourth :  In  the  last  decades  the  general  business 
profits  in  America  have  been  so  large  that  little 
thought  was  given  to  the  most  economical  methods  of 
production  and  the  strictest  economy  in  the  fuel  bill, 
as  v^ell  as  other  expenses,  was  not  taken  into  earnest 
consideration,  the  main  object  being  to  manufacture 
quickly  and  in  quantities,  regardless  of  cost.  America 
has  not  had  to  compete  with  the  industrial  countries  of 
the  world  as  Europe  has. 

To  these  reasons  may  be  added  that  the  financial 
strength  of  the  American  Diesel  Engine  Company  was 
never  vigorous  and  the  exploitation  was  consequently 
retarded.  The  fact  that  before  the  expiration  of  the 
patents  approximately  50,000  h.p.  in  Diesels  were  in 
operation  in  this  country  may  not  appear  as  so  bad  a 
record  when  all  the  obstacles  it  had  to  overcome  are 
taken  into  consideration.  The  American  company 
adhered  to  practically  one  basic  type  during  nearly 
the  whole  term  of  the  patents,  though  it  has  since 
been  superseded  and  the  engines  now  placed  on  the 
market  in  the  United  States  are  abreast  of  the  best 
European  designs  in  the  stationary  types  of  engines. 
They  have  not,  however,  advanced  to  the  large  sizes 
prevailing  abroad,  for  there  are  at  present  in  opera- 
tion in  Europe  engines  of  4000  brake  h.p.,  while  the 
largest  engine  manufactured  in  this  country  to  date 
is  less  than  1000  h.p.  in  four  cylinders. 


CHAPTER  II 

BASIS  OF  OPERATION 

The  operation  of  the  four-stroke-cycle  Diesel  en- 
gine may  be  simply  described  as  follows,  with  the 
assistance  of  the  diagrams  shown  in  Fig.  1.  The  first 
diagram  represents  the  downward  stroke  of  the  piston, 


1st  Cycle 
lutake 


2d  Cycle 
Compression 


Ijd  Cycle 
Workiug  Stroke 


4th  Cycle 
Exhaust 


Fig.   1.     Four-stroke  Diesel  Diagram. 

the  valve  being  open,  admitting  air  from  the  atmos- 
phere to  completely  fill  the  cylinder  when  the  piston 
is  at  the  bottom  end  of  its  stroke.  The  second  diagram 
represents  the  second  or  upstroke  of  the  piston,  called 


BASIS    OF    OPERATION 


11 


the  compression  stroke,  all  the  valves  being  closed. 
When  the  piston  reaches  the  top  of  stroke,  leaving  only 
the  small  distance  between  the  top  of  the  piston  and 
the  head,  the  air  has  reached  a  pressure  of  about  500 
lb.  per  sq.  in.  and  as  compression  of  air  increases  its 
temperature,  the  500  lb.  per  sq.  in.  corresponds  to  1000 


0  100       200       300        400        500       600 

Absolute   Pressure  at  Lnd  of  Compression 

In  lb.  per  sq.  in. 

Fig.   2.     Compression  Temperatures  for  Diesel  Engines. 

deg.  Fahrenheit,  as  may  be  plainly  seen  in  Fig.  2. 
At  this  point,  when  the  piston  commences  the  down- 
ward stroke,  fuel  oil  is  sprayed  or  atomized  into  the 
cylinder  during  a  definite  period  of  the  down  stroke. 
When  it  comes  in  contact  with  the  compressed  and 
heated  air  it  burns  and  expands,  giving  the  necessary 
pressure  for  the  power  stroke.  When  the  piston  has 
practically  reached  the  lowest  point  the  exhaust  valve 


12 


THE    DIESEL    ENGINE    IN    PRACTICE 


Opens  and  relieves  the  pressure  during  the  upward 
stroke,  the  piston  expelling  and  exhausting  the  burnt 
gases,  completing  the  cycle  in  readiness  for  the  down 
stroke.     This  is  what  Dr.  Diesel  finally  accomplished 


Fig.     3.     Diagram    Illustrating-    Two-stroke    Diesel. 


in  his  engine  and  represents  the  most  economical, 
practical,  and  probably  the  most  efficient  conversion 
of  energy  ever  developed.  The  cycle  just  described 
represents  a  four-stroke-cycle,  the  one  most  used  for 
smaller  engines,  in  fact  the  one  most  frequently  used 
in  this  country,  there  being  but  few  companies  mak- 
ing a  two-stroke-cycle  stationary  engine  in  the  United 
States. 


BASIS    OF    OPERATION 


13 


The  two-stroke-cycle  may  be  described  with  the 
assistance  of  Fig.  3.  Assume  the  piston  in  its  extreme 
lowest  position,  valve  No.  1  represents  an  opening  in 
the  cylinder  which  is  uncovered  when  the  piston  is  in 
this  position.  This  is  called  the  admission  or  inlet 
port  and  delivers  air  at  from  5  to  6  lb.  per  sq.  in.  pro- 
vided by  a  scavenger  pump.  No.  3  represents  the 
exhaust  port  which  opens  slightly  before  No.  1,  allow- 
ing the  exhaust  gases  to  pass  out.    When  No.  1  opens 


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the  inrush  of  air  under  slight  pressure  hastens  and 
assists  the  burnt  gases  to  escape.  On  the  upstroke 
the  full  cylinder  of  air  remains  and  is  compressed  to 
about  500  lb.  per  sq.  in.  with  the  accompanying  rise  in 
temperature.  Valve  2  then  opens  and  fuel  oil  under 
pressure  is  sprayed  or  atomized  as  in  the  four-stroke- 
cycle.  This  figure  shows  the  later  type  of  two-stroke- 
cycle  cylinder  with  a  valve  in  the  scavenger  air  inlet 
to   assist  filling  the   cylinder  with   low  pressure   air, 


14 


THE    DIESEL    ENGINE    IN    PRACTICE 


after  the  exhaust  is  partially  covered.  The  burning 
of  the  oil  forces  the  piston  downward,  giving  a  power 
stroke  every  two  strokes  in  place  of  every  four  strokes, 
as  in  the  four-stroke-cycle  engine,  usually  called  four- 
cycle. Fig.  4  represents  an  indicator  diagram  from  a 
four-stroke-cycle  engine  and  if  we  assume,  for  exam- 
ple, a  vertical  engine,  the  line  1  represents  the  down- 
ward stroke  of  the  piston  and  the  drawing  in  of  the 
air  at  approximately  atmospheric  pressure.     The  line 


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Two-Stroke   Cycle  Diesel  Indicator   Card. 


2,  the  upstroke  of  the  piston,  the  vertical  rise  in  this 
line  showing  the  gradual  increase  in  the  pressure, 
while  the  trend  to  the  left  shows  the  decreasing  dis- 
tance between  piston  and  the  head  until  the  point 
"X''  is  reached,  a  short  distance  before  the  top  cen- 
ter when  the  fuel  is  allowed  to  enter  and  continues 
until  the  point  "Y"  is  reached.  The  balance  of  the 
line  3  being  the  continuance  of  the  expansion,  due 
to  the  burning  of  the  oil.     The  line  4  shows  the  up- 


BASIS    OF    OPERATION 


15 


ward  stroke  and  the  exhaust  of  the  burnt  gases  to  the 
atmosphere. 

Fig.  5  shows  a  diagram  from  a  two-stroke-cycle 
engine.     The  difiference  from  the  four-stroke-cycle  is 


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Comparative   Efficiencies   of  Two-stroke   and 
Four-stroke   Cycles. 


easily  noticeable.  The  line  1  represents  the  upstroke 
in  a  vertical  engine;  point  "X''  point  of  fuel  injection 
and  "Y"  the  point  of  closing  of  the  fuel  valve.  The 
line  2  shows  the  burning  and  expansion  of  the  oil ;  the 


16 


THE    DIESEL    ENGINE    IN    PRACTICE 


point  ''Z"  being  the  starting  of  the  opening  of  the 
exhaust  port,  being  slightly  before  the  scavenger  air 
is  allowed  to  enter.  The  necessity  of  uncovering  the 
exhaust  port  when  the  pressure  is  at  a  higher  point 
than  in  the  four-stroke-cycle  would  appear  to  lessen 
the  efficiency  of  the  cycle.  This,  however,  is  nearly 
compensated  for  by  the  loop  in  the  four-stroke-cycle 
shown  in  Fig.  4,  between  the  lines  ''1"  and  "4."  The 
necessity  of  a  scavenger  cylinder  and  the   power  to 


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Figr.   7.     Fuel   Consumption   Curves. 


drive  it  makes  the  two-cycle  engine 
efficiency  than  the  four-stroke-cycle, 
is  shown  in  Figs.  6  and  7.  Fig.  6 
stroke-cycle  to  be  74  per  cent  mech 
and  the  two-stroke-cycle  67  per  cent 
cies,  however,  should  not  be  confused 
efficiency  which    ranges   between  30 


of  lower  overall 
The  comparison 
shows  the  four- 
anically  efficient 
These  efficien- 
with  the  thermal 
and  35  per  cent. 


BASIS    OF    OPERATION 


17 


This  is  shown  by  the  following  example  by  referring 
to  Fig.  7.  Assuming  a  four-stroke-cycle  engine  and 
oil  to  contain  18,000  B.t.u.  per  pound  the  full  load 
consumption  of  the  four-stroke-cycle  is  shown  to  be 


Fig.    8. 


4-Cycie 
Diesel  Engine  Plant. 

Graphic   Illustration    of   Heat   Balance. 


.41  of  a  pound  of  oil  per  brake  horsepower  hour,  .41  X 
18,000  =  7380  B.t.u.  are  fed  to  the  engine  for  each  h.p. 
developed  for  one  hour's  operation.  A  horsepower 
hour  contains  2545  B.t.u.,  so  dividing  the  output  in 
heat  units  by  the  input  in  heat  units  gives  2545/7380 
-=  .345  or  34.5  per  cent  thermal  efficiency.  The  thermal 
efficiency  of  the  two-stroke-cycle,  based  on  the  con- 


18  THE    DIESEL    ENGINE    IN    PRACTICE 

sumption  shown  in  the  same  figure  is  25457.48  X  18,000 
=  29  per  cent  thermal  efficiency  for  the  two-stroke- 
cycle.  These  are,  however,  both  actual  overall  thermal 
efficiencies  and  moreover  the  ones  that  may  be  easily 
expected  in  practice  and  covered  by  rigid  guarantees 
offered  by  the  manufacturers.  The  efficiency  of  the 
theoretical  cycle  does  not  include  the  mechanical 
losses  which  range  between  10  and  15  per  cent.  A 
graphic  illustration  of  the  heat  balance  of  a  Diesel 
engine  is  shown  in  Fig.  8. 

The  actual  use  of  these  two  kinds  of  engines  is 
based  on  several  considerations.  The  largest  and 
most  varied  experience  has  been  had  with  the  four- 
stroke-cycle  of  low  speed.  They  have  higher  effi- 
ciency than  the  two-stroke-cycle,  and  their  absolute 
reliability  has  been  proven  beyond  a  doubt.  So  the 
reason  for  changing  to  two-stroke-cycle  in  smaller  and 
moderate  sized  engines  is  but  slight. 

However,  when  larger  sizes  are  approached  the 
size  of  cylinders  becomes  too  large  and  the  two-stroke- 
cycle  is  forced  into  consideration,  and  here  it  has  its 
most  economical  application.  The  value  of  the  money 
to  be  invested  in  the  engine,  the  cost  of  fuel  to  run  it 
and  the  cost  of  freight  on  the  engine  should  be  taken 
into  consideration  in  each  separate  case  in  balancing 
the  one  type  against  the  other.   . 

The  problem  is  settled  by  the  manufacturer,  how- 
ever, by  placing  low  cost  of  manufacture  against  econ- 
omy of  operation,  in  other  words,  a  low  first  cost  for 
the  purchaser  versus  a  low  operating  cost.  These  can 
only  be  balanced  when  all  the  conditions  of  operation 
are  taken  into  consideration.  Practically  all  the  Amer- 
ican engines  operating  on  the  Diesel  principle  are  of 
the    four-stroke-cycles,    but    some    manufacturers    ad- 


BASIS    OF    OPERATION  19 

here  to  the  two-stroke-cycle,  even  in  sizes  as  low  as 
80  h.p.  in  two  cylinders.  The  simplicity  of  the  two-cycle 
engine,  with  its  absence  of  valves  except  for  fuel  and 
starting,  is  a  decided  advantage,  but  there  must  be 
balanced  against  this  the  fact  that  cooling  the  cylin- 
ders and  pistons  is  much  more  difficult,  as  twice  the 
heat  must  be  removed  in  a  given  cylinder  size  in  a 
two-stroke-cycle  engine.  The  latest  types  of  two- 
stroke-cycle  are  provided  with  mechanically  operated 
scavenging  ports  in  addition  to  the  uncovering  func- 
tion of  the  pistons.  In  this  way  the  scavenging  air 
enters  the  cylinder  after  the  exhaust  port  is  closed, 
and  increases  its  volumetric  capacity,  due  to  the  ex- 
cess pressure  of  the  scavenger  air  above  that  of  the 
atmosphere. 

Carnot's  law,  as  applying  to  heat  engines,  is  well 
understood :  the  higher  the  initial  temperature  and 
the  lower  the  terminal  temperature,  or  the  higher  the 
mitial  compression  pressure  and  the  lower  the  terminal 
pressure,  the  higher  will  be  the  theoretical  thermal  effi- 
ciency of  the  engine.  But  the  actually  attainable  effi- 
ciency is  limited  by  the  characteristics  of  the  avail- 
able materials ;  and  modified  by  the  mechanical  losses, 
affected  by  the  weight  and  dimensions  of  the  moving 
elements  of  the  engine.  Dr.  Diesel  demonstrated  that, 
although  the  theoretical  thermal  efficiency  increased 
slightly  beyond  this  point,  the  highest  mechanical  effi- 
ciency was  attained  with  a  compression  pressure  of 
30  atmospheres,  (450  lb.  per  sq.  in.),  and  a  compression 
temperature  of  500  deg.  C.  (868  deg.  F.)  Balancing 
these  advantages  against  one  another,  that  the  high- 
est actual  efficiency,  and  the  greatest  useful  power  de- 
velopment per  unit  of  cylinder  volume,  would  be 
obtained    by    compressing   the    air    to    a    pressure    of 


20  THE    DIESEL    ENGINE    IN    PRACTICE 

between  30  and  40  atmospheres,  (450  to  600  lb.  per 
sq.  in),  and  a  temperature  between  500  and  600  deg.  C. 
(868  deg.  to  1048  deg.  F.)  and  introducing  the  fuel 
in  such  manner  as  to  obtain  combustion  at  constant 
pressure  with  a  maximum  combustion  temperature 
between  1600  and  1800  deg.  C.  (2848  and  3200  deg.  F.) 
On  either  side  of  these  limits,  the  actual  efficiency  of 
the  engine  diminished.  These  deductions  do  not  ap- 
pear to  have  been  proven  incorrect  after  twenty  years 
of  practical  and  diversified  experience.  It  is  self- 
evident  that  the  stated  compression  temperature  is 
*'far  in  excess  of  that  required"  solely  for  the  ignition 
of  any  carbonaceous  substance  which  would  ordinarily 
be  used  as  fuel ;  also  that,  to  avoid  ignition  during  the 
progress  of  the  compression,  the  fuel  must  not  enter 
the  cylinder  until  after  the  full  compression  has  been 
attained. 


CHAPTER  III 

EXPERIENCE  WITH   EARLIER 
INSTALLATIONS 

One  of  the  first  plants  to  be  operated  commer- 
cially in  America  with  Diesel  engines  was  owned  by 
the  Manhattan  Transit  Company,  located  at  Forty- 
seventh  street  and  Second  avenue,  New  York  City. 
In  1902  this  company  purchased  a  30  h.p.  single  cyl- 
inder Diesel  engine,  the  cylinder  dimensions  being  10 
by  15  in.  The  power  was  to  be  used  in  generating 
current  for  charging  electric  vehicles.  It  was  super- 
seded by  two  twin  cylinder  engines  of  60  h.p.  each. 
These  were,  in  turn,  superseded  by  two  75  h.p.  triple 
cylinder  machines. 

The  first  three  engines  installed  were  belted  to 
direct  current  generators.  The  last  two  75  h.p.  were 
direct  connected  to  the  same  type  of  electric  generator. 
All  of  these  engines  had  separately  driven  air  com- 
pressors of  the  two-stage  Ingersoll-Rand  type.  The 
two  last  engines  installed  are  still  in  operation.  The 
first  three,  however,  have  been  junked.  All  of  these 
engines  were  of  the  splash  lubrication  type.  The  last 
two  75  h.p  triple  cylinder  machines  installed  were  of 
the  same  type  and  design  as  those  built  by  the  Amer- 
ican Diesel  Engine  Company  until  the  latter  part  of 
1914. 

In  the  first  engines  installed  the  admission  valves 
were  automatically  operated,  opening  inward,  being 
closed  by  a  spring.    The  exhaust  valves  and  fuel  valves 


22  THE    DIESEL    ENGINE    IN    PRACTICE 

were  operated  by  an  eccentric  and  pin  operating  a  rod 
connecting^  to  the  valves  which  were  closed  by 
springs,  while  the  fuel  valves  were  of  the  horizontal 
type.  One  of  these  engines  was  wrecked,  due  to  a 
broken  connecting  rod  which  at  that  time  was  made 
of  cast  iron.  The  second  one  was  wrecked  due  to  me- 
chanical troubles. 

The  two  last  75  h.p.  engines  installed  in  this  plant, 
having  three  25  h.p.  cylinders,  were  designed  by  the 
late  Mr.  James  McPherson  and  manufactured  in  Prov- 
idence, R.  I.,  at  the  old  Corliss  engine  works,  the 
dimensions  of  the  cylinders  being  10  by  15  in.  They 
had  splash  lubrication  and  a  cam  shaft  running  through 
the  crank  case  with  cams  to  open  the  exhaust  and  fuel 
valve;  the  admission  valve  of  this  engine  was  auto- 
matic, similar  to  that  on  the  first  design.  This  type 
was  a  distinct  advantage  over  the  first  American  de- 
sign, one  of  the  new  features  being  removable  heads, 
which  were  adopted  with  this  engine  for  the  first  time 
in  this  country.  Six  air  bottles  or  steel  tanks  were 
supplied  with  each  engine  of  approximately  8  in.  in 
diameter  and  8  ft.  in  length ;  they  were  imported  from 
abroad  and  tested  at  3000  lb.  per  sq.  in.  Pennsylvania 
crude  oil  was  used  for  fuel,  being  purchased  in  barrels 
at  a  cost  of  4  cents  a  gallon.  The  plant  was  visited 
daily  by  prominent  men  of  New  York  City,  especially 
from  Wall  street.  The  owners  of  the  Manhattan  Tran- 
sit Company  were  important  figures  in  the  financial 
district  and  enthusiastic  about  Diesel  engines. 

The  machines  operated  24  hours  a  day  and  after 
the  last  engines  were  installed  furnished  lights  for  the 
business  block  as  well  as  furnishing  current  for  charg- 
ing the  electric  vehicles.  Mr.  McPherson,  in  design- 
ing this  last  engine,  in  no  way  followed  European  prac- 


EXPERIENCE    WITH    EARLIER    INSTALLATIONS     23 

tice  and  after  the  successful  operation  of  this  size  he 
designed  engines  of  120  h.p.,  170  h.p.  and  225  h.p.  All 
engines   were  built  with  three  cylinders    with    corn- 


Fig.  9.     Sectional  Drawing-  of  American  Diesel  Engine. 


pressors  either  belt  driven  from  the  engine  or  motor 
driven.  The  225  h-.p.  engine  shown  in  Fig.  9  consisted 
of  three  16  in.  by  24  in.  cylinders,  the  cranks  being 


24  THE    DIESEL    ENGINE    IN    PRACTICE 

set  at  120  degrees ;  the  connecting  rods  with  wrist  pin 
bolts  were  made  of  forged  steel,  while  for  the  first 
time  all  valves  were  mechanically  operated  from  cams. 
The  admission  valve  was  set  in  a  cage  while  the  ex- 
haust valve  had  no  cage,  the  seat  being  part  of  the 
head.  The  fuel  needle  was  set  horizontally  and  was 
mechanically  operated  from  the  cam  shaft,  the  ato- 
mizers being  made  of  bronze.  The  clearance  at  the 
top  of  the  pistons  was  J^  in.,  this  clearance  giving  a 
compression  of  500  lb.  per  sq.  in.  and  a  consequent  tem- 
perature of  1000  deg.  Fahrenheit,  the  pistons  having 
four  compression  rings  but  without  wiper  rings.  The 
combustion  chamber  extended  over  between  the  ex- 
haust and  admission  valve.  The  cylinders  were  solid, 
being  of  one  casting,  having  no  liners,  as  in  the  pres- 
ent types.  These  cylinders  were  water  jacketed  and 
a  bypass  led  the  water  into  the  head  while  cooling 
water  was  also  used  in  the  exhaust  chambers.  The 
main  bearings  were  babbitt  lined  and  permitted  of  ad- 
justment by  wedges.  These  engines  were  started  from 
one  cylinder  which  was  provided  with  a  starting  valve 
in  addition  to  the  usual  inlet,  exhaust  and  fuel  valves. 
The  first  three  engines  of  225  h.p.  were  shipped 
to  St.  Louis  and  installed  in  the  Tyrolean  Alps,  a  con- 
cession in  the  Louisiana  Purchase  Exposition  in  1904. 
The  engines  were  direct  connected  to  direct  current 
generators  and  supplied  light  and  power  for  the  Tyro- 
lean Alps.  The  first  engine  was  started  at  11  a.  m. 
and  ran  until  midnight,  the  other  two  were  cut  in  at 
dusk.  During  the  entire  fair  there  was  no  time  that 
they  were  without  light  and  power.  After  the  fair  one 
engine  was  sold  to  the  Baldwin  Locomotive  Works  in 
Philadelphia,  and  two  to  Ball  Brathers  Glass  Com- 
pany, Muncie,  Indiana.    All  three  are  still  in  operation 


EXPERIENCE    WITH    EARLIER    INSTALLATIONS     25 

in  connection  with  others  afterwards  purchased  and 
installed  in  the  same  plants.  The  power  house  at  the 
Tyrolean  Alps  was  typical,  laid  out  and  set  up  in  the 
latest  and  most  approved  manner  at  that  time,  two  en- 
gines being  arranged  on  one  side  of  the  room,  the 
third  being  on  the  opposite  side.  The  three  com- 
pressors were  set  to  one  side  of  the  engine  room,  one 
being  of  the  Ingersoll-Rand  type,  two-stage  horizontal 
and  two  built  by  the  American  Diesel  Engine  Com- 
pany at  Providence,  R.  I.,  of  the  two-stage  vertical 
type,  all  motor  driven.  These  engines  at  the  Tyrolean 
Alps  attracted  a  great  deal  of  attention,  thousands  of 
people  stopping  daily  to  observe  what  was  termed  at 
that  time  the  handsomest  machinery  in  the  world.  The 
engines  were  painted  with  black  enamel  paint  and  had 
gold  trimmings,  the  room  was  fitted  with  hardwood 
polished  floor,  in  fact  everything  appeared  as  if  it  was 
intended  for  permanent  operation.  Of  course,  at  that 
time  there  were  few  people  who  knew  much,  if  any- 
thing about  the  Diesel  engine,  and  it  was  a  great  curi- 
osity. 

Machinery  Hall  at  the  St.  Louis  Fair  was  an  ex- 
tremely large  building.  Many  different  designs  of 
steam  engines  were  installed  and  in  operation,  but  at 
that  time  the  semi-Diesel,  as  they  call  it  today,  was 
not  even  known.  The  Mietz  &  Weiss  Co.  of  New 
York,  exhibited  a  coal-oil  engine  and  the  Otto  Gas 
Engine  Company  were  about  the  only  ones  in  the 
hall,  a  Webber  gas  producer  being  set  up  out  in  the 
boiler  room  and  at  that  time  was  looked  upon  as  being 
somewhat  dangerous. 

The  real  business  of  the  American  Diesel  Engine 
Company,  we  might  say,  started  at  the  St.  Louis  Ex- 
position.    A  large  number  of  engines  were  sold  from 


26  THE    DIESEL    ENGINE    IN    PRACTICE 

this  exhibit  and  during  the  year  there  was  a  plant 
installed  in  Sherman,  Tex.,  for  lighting  the  city.  This 
plant  afterwards  was  bought  by  the  Texas  Power  & 
Light  Company,  who  now  have  in  operation  approxi- 
mately 20  or  more  Diesel  engines  and  are  still  buying, 
even  though  they  have  a  large  and  up  to  date  steam 
turbine  plant  for  some  of  their  work.  The  Gorham  Sil- 
ver Company  at  Providence,  R.  I.,  The  Prairie  Pebble 
Phosphate  Company  of  Mulberry,  Fla.,  and  numerous 
other  plants  were  sold  in  this  year. 

The  Prairie  Pebble  Phosphate  Company  purchased 
engines  in  1904,  1910,  1912  and  1914  so  that  all  told 
they  have  19  Diesel  engines  in  operation  daily. 
Sixteen  of  their  engines  are  set  up  in  double  units, 
making  eight  300  kw.  sets.  These  engines  all  run  in 
parallel,  driving  sixty  cycle  alternating  current  gener- 
ators of  2300  volts.  The  power  in  this  plant  is  used 
for  driving  centrifugal  pumps  for  hydraulicing  the 
banks  of  phosphate  rock,  which  is  used  as  a  fertilizer 
and  a  large  majority  of  the  thousands  of  tons  obtained 
daily  are  shipped  to  foreign  countries,  largely  to  Ger- 
many. 

The  Sherman,  Texas,  plant  furnishes  light  for  the 
city  of  Sherman,  supplying  24  hours  service.  The 
tests  on  this  engine  are  shown  in  the  accompanying 
table  as  having  been  made  in  January,  1905,  the  yearly 
operating  log  being  shown  also.  During  the  year  from 
March,  1912,  to  February,  1913,  it  is  interesting  to  note 
how  nearly  the  fuel  consumption  over  the  year's  opera- 
tion approached  the  fuel  consumption  on  full  load  tests 
seven  years  before,  showing  conclusively  that  the 
Diesel  not  only  maintains  its  original  economy  but 
also  is  extremely  economical  on  the  fluctuating  loads 
of  a  central  station. 


EXPERIENCE    WITH    EARLIER    INSTALLATIONS     27 


TABLE   I. 


OFFICIAL   ACCEPTANCE    TEST,    SHERMAN,   TEX., 
JANUARY  1,  1905. 


Three  Cylinder  16x24,  225  B.H.P.  Diesel  Engine  No.  138. 


Oil 

Air 

Consumed     Pres- 

Time. 

Volts. 

Amp. 

R.P.M. 

Oil. 

Gal. 

sure. 

K.W, 

5   p. 

m. 

242 

640 

162 

72 

atm. 

7   p. 

m. 

242 

635 

164 

19.0 

16.0 

71 

atm. 

156.7 

9    p. 

m. 

240 

655 

163 

18.0 

15.5 

70 

atm. 

159.0 

11    p. 

m. 

243 

620 

164 

15.5 

15.5 

67 

atm. 

158.0 

1    a. 

m. 
m. 

238 
239 

640 
655 

104 
163 

13.0 
14.0 

13.0 
14.0 

159.0 

3    a. 

69 

atm. 

157.0 

5   a. 

m. 

240 

650 

164 

14.5 

14.5 

69 

atm. 

161.0 

7    a. 

m. 

239 

665 

164 

14.0 

14.0 

69 

atm. 

160.0 

9    a. 

m. 

238 

670 

163 

14.0 

14.0 

70 

atm. 

160.0 

11    a. 

m. 

240 

655 

164 

13.5 

13.5 

70 

atm. 

160.5 

1    p. 

m. 

238 

665 

164 

14.0 

14.0 

70 

atm. 

157.0 

3    p. 

m. 

242 

660 

162 

15.75 

15.75 

70 

atm. 

161.6 

5   p. 

m. 

243 

675 

160 

17.75 

17.75 

72 

atm. 

168.5 

Total  KW.  Developed  During:  Test. 

Total    hours    run 24 

Total    kw.    developed 38325 

Average   kw.   developed   per   hr..l59.6 — 232.4  h.p.  at  92%  Gen.  EfC. 

Max.  kw.  developed  in  1  hr 168.5 — 245.0  h.p.  at  92%  Gen.  Eff. 

Average  air  pressure ;  .  .70  atmospheres 

(Oil    consumption    as    shown    averages    9.41    gal.    per    100 
kw.-hr. — 6.46   gal.   per   b.h.p.   hr.) 

450  lew.  Diesel  Engrine,  Central  Station  Installation. 


Output 

Month.  kw.-hr. 

1912. 

March    95,328 

April    77,915 

May    76,820 

June     70,230 

July     91,704 

August    85,105 

September    105,506 

October     117,360 

November     114,048 

December     117,499 

1913 

January    115,212 

February    101,300 


Total  Opera- 

tion and 

Maintenance. 

Load  Factor. 

Mills 

Per  Cent. 

Per  kw.-hr. 

28.4 

5.31 

24.0 

6.88 

23.0 

6.70 

21.7 

7.96 

27.4 

8.05 

25.4 

9.50 

32.5 

5.83 

34.7 

7.28 

35.2 

6.43 

35.1 

4.69 

34.1 

6.22 

33.5 

5.10 

Total    1,168,027 

Average    97,335 


29.6 


6.66 


Physical  Data. 

H.P.  rating  of  plant,  675.    No.  of  engines,  3.    Size  of  each,  225  h..p 
Cost  of  fuel  oil  f.o.b.  plant,  per  bbl.,  $1.05.     Per  gal.,  .025. 
B.t.u.  of  oil,   18,000.    Average  gal.   fuel  oil  per  100  kw.-hr.,  10.2. 
Wages  of  men  per  day,   $9;  1  at  $3.33;  1  at  $2.17;  1  at  $2;   1  at  $1.50. 


28  THE    DIESEL    ENGINE    IN    PRACTICE 

Another  interesting  plant  is  that  of  the  Key  West 
Electric  Company  at  Key  West,  Florida,  who  were 
among  the  early  purchasers  of  Diesel  engines.  They 
operated  at  first  in  connection  with  their  steam  plant 
two  225  h.p.  engines  belted  to  a  jack-shaft,  to  which 
also  was  belted  their  steam  engines  and  from  that  a 
large  belt  running  to  a  generator.  In  the  spring  of  1907 
they  installed  a  third  225  h.p.  to  operate  their  trolley 
system  and  these  engines  are  all  in  operation  at  the 
present  time.  In  1908  the  Diesels  were  disconnected 
from  the  jack-shaft  and  individual  generators  installed, 
direct  connected  to  the  engines.  The  engine  that 
operates  their  trolley  system  also  operates  their  electric 
fan  circuit,  and  as  Key  West  is  a  city  of  25,000  and 
quite  warm  the  year  round,  the  fan  load  is  considerable. 
This  engine  does  18  hours  a  day  service  year  in  and 
year  out.  The  conditions  at  Key  West,  Fla.,  make 
it  hard  to  maintain  any  kind  of  machinery,  as  the  salt 
atmosphere  necessitates  the  changing  of  all  water 
piping  every  six  months  or  at  least  once  a  year.  The 
water  used  for  circulation  is  of  the  worst  kind,  as  nat- 
urally there  is  no  fresh  water  on  the  island  of  Key 
West,  excepting  rain  water,  which  is  only  used  for 
household  purposes,  all  other  water  being  obtained 
from  inland  wells  whose  water  is  brackish  on  account 
of  its  proximity  to  the  ocean. 

A  great  many  Diesel  engines  of  this  same  type 
with  some  improvements,  have  been  sold  and  put  in 
operation  in  over  half  the  states  of  the  Union  and  in 
fifty-nine  or  more  different  kinds  of  industries.  Diesel 
engines  today  are  driving  ice  machines,  flour  mills, 
chocolate  factories,  woolen  mills,  cotton  mills,  paper 
mills  and  innumerable  other  industries.  One  flour  mill 
with  a  capacity  of  1000  barrels  per  24  hr.  formerly  used 


EXPERIENCE    WITH    EARLIER    INSTALLATIONS     29 

55  to  58  bbl.  of  fuel  oil  under  boilers  every  24  hr. 
This  plant  now  with  Diesel  engines  turns  out  the  same 
amount  of  flour  on  from  11  to  13  bbl.,  a  saving  of  over 
$1100  a  month  in  fuel  alone.  There  are  ice  plants 
being  operated  with  Diesel  engines  in  some  of  our  hot- 
test states,  such  as  Louisiana,  that  are  making  ice  at 
a  fuel  expense  of  18  cents  a  ton. 

The  public,  in  general,  has  heard  more  or  less  of 
the  troubles  with  Diesel  engines,  but  it  is  the  same 
thing  with  any  new  invention  placed  upon  the  market. 
In  a  steam  plant,  for  instance,  the  boiler  could  blow 
up  and  kill  a  half  dozen  people.  Someone  would  say, 
"Why,  that's  too  bad,  but  we  will  have  to  buy  a  new 
boiler."  But  when  it  comes  to  the  Diesel  engine,  if  a 
minor  difficulty  should  occur  and  cause  the  lights  or 
power  to  be  off  for  ten  minutes,  everyone  would  have 
''their  sign  out" — *T  told  you  so.  That  engine  is  no 
good,"  etc.  Diesel  engines  up  to  the  present  time 
have  never  had  an  honest  chance.  A  great  majority  of 
those  put  out  into  the  world  are  operated  by  men 
who  simply  know  if  they  open  this  valve  or  that,  that 
the  engine  will  start  or  stop,  with  no  idea  of  the  care 
that  is  necessary  to  make  an  engine  operate  success- 
fully. 

Another  thing  that  has  always  seemed  strange  is 
that  the  purchaser  of  a  $25,000  steam  plant  will  want 
the  best  steam  engineer  he  can  obtain  at  almost  any 
price  to  care  for  and  operate  his  plant,  a  man  who  has 
had  years  of  training  along  this  line,  but  when  the  same 
man  or  one  of  his  type,  purchases  a  Diesel  engine  plant 
costing  $25,000,  he  generally  tries  to  get  the  cheapest 
man  possible  to  operate  it.  Diesel  engines  require 
more  care  and  attention  than  steam  engines,  not  con- 
sidering  the   boiler   plant  or  pumps   and   auxiliaries. 


30  THE    DIESEL    ENGINE    IN    PRACTICE 

There  are  approximately  five  times  as  many  parts,  or 
more,  to  a  Diesel  engine  as  there  are  to  a  steam  en- 
gine, and  lost  motion  on  all  these  parts  is  considerable. 
The  writer  recalls  a  plant  that  he  visited  at  one  time 
in  Arizona.  The  engine  had  been  operating  almost 
continuously,  night  and  day,  for  four  years,  furnish- 
ing power  for  a  water  pumping  station.  As  he  entered 
the  plant  the  engine  sounded  more  like  a  stone  crusher 
than  an  engine  and  this  noise  all  came  from  lost  motion 
in  the  valve  gear,  caused  by  neglect  and  lack  of  knowl- 
edge. The  following  day  when  the  engine  was  shut 
down  for  inspection  the  lost  motion  was  found  between 
the  cams  and  the  rollers  connected  to  the  rods  that 
open  the  exhaust  and  admission  valves  to  have  from 
Yi  in.  to  %  in.  clearance  instead  of  only  1/32  in.  On 
asking  the  engineer  what  this  meant  he  said  not  to 
blame  him;  that  the  man  who  erected  the  engine  set 
the  rollers  that  way,  four  years  before,  and  he  had 
never  touched  them.  That  was  his  idea  of  operating 
and  caring  for  a  Diesel  engine! 


CHAPTER  IV 
FUEL  OIL 

Although  almost  all  forms  of  carbonaceous  and 
hydro-carbon  fuels,  from  powdered  coal  to  gas,  have 
been  tried  experimentally  in  Diesel  engines,  commer- 
cially successful  operation  has  been  confined  to  liquid 
fuels — more  particularly  to  mineral  oils  and  coal  tar. 
In  the  United  States  the  relative  value  of  tar  is  so  high, 
on  account  of  the  marketable  products  obtainable  from 
it  and  its  use  for  roofing  and  similar  purposes,  that 
there  has  been  no  inducement  to  use  it  for  Diesel 
engine  fuel  in  preference  to  the  cheap  petroleum  fuels. 
It  was  for  this  reason  alone,  that  one  large  gas  com- 
pany, after  successfully  using  the  tar  from  its  own 
works  as  fuel  in  its  Diesel  engines  for  some  years, 
changed  to  oil,  finding  it  possible  to  sell  the  tar  for 
more  than  the  cost  of  the  oil. 

There  does  not  appear  to  be  any  limitation  to  the 
possibility  of  using  mineral  oils  in  Diesel  engines,  from 
the  heaviest  crudes  to  refined  kerosene,  but  commercial 
and  practical  considerations  tend  to  give  preference  to 
fuel  oils  ranging  between  24  degrees  and  36  degrees 
Beaume.  The  available  supply  of  these  fuels  is  large 
in  proportion  to  the  demand  for  them,  so  that  they 
may  generally  be  purchased  at  prices  as  low  as,  or 
lower,  than  those  of  crudes,  from  which  the  valuable 
lighter  and  heavier  constituents  have  not  been  ab- 
stracted. 


32  THE    DIESEL    ENGINE    IN    PRACTICE 

Fuel  oils,  for  use  in  Diesel  engines,  should  con- 
tain the  lowest  proportions  of  the  following  impuri- 
ties, compatible  with  the  prices  demanded : 

Water — because  it  is  charged  for  at  the  fuel  oil  price; 
it  reduces  the  efficiency  of  the  engine;  it  increases  the  main- 
tenance costs;  and  it  has  a  detrimental  effect  upon  the  regu- 
lation. More  than  one-third  of  one  per  cent  of  water  should 
be  considered  excessive;  and,  if  fuel  containing  more  than 
this  has  been  accepted,  the  water  should  be  settled  out,  by 
heating  the  oil  by  means  of  a  steam  coil. 

Sulphur — if  in  excess  of  IVz  per  cent,  the  combination  of 
the  sulphurous  fumes  with  the  vapors  of  the  water  combus- 
tion, will  corrode  and  pit  the  exhaust  valves  and  seats,  and 
rapidly  eat  out  the  exhaust  piping. 

Ash — a  comparatively  minute  percentage  of  entirely  non- 
combustible  matter  in  the  fuel  causes  an  accumulation  on  the 
oify  cylinder  walls,  between  these  and  the  piston,  which  will 
result  in  excessive  wear. 

Asphaitum — this  much  abused  term  is  susceptible  to  so 
many  and  various  interpretations,  that  it  has  no  definite  sig- 
nificance. Nor  has  the  method  for  its  determination  been 
standardized.  The  various  chemical  and  mechanical  (pene- 
tration) determinations  have  little  or  no  bearing  upon  the 
real  issue  under  consideration  here;  viz.,  the  complete  com- 
bustibility in  a  Diesel  cylinder  under  the  conditions  existing 
in  it  and  within  the  available  time.  A  comparison  of  results 
obtained  in  actual  us©  for  the  above  purpose,  with  oils  con- 
taining a  substance,  other  than  ash,  which  will  not  volatilize 
under  certain  definite  conditions,  appears  to  be  the  best  guide 
as  to  the  proportion  of  this  substance  which  will  render  neces- 
sary an  excessively  frequent  cleaning  of  the  cylinder  and 
its  adjuncts.  Several  years  of  careful  observation  and  records 
have  induced  the  oldest  Diesel  engine  builders  in  this  coun- 
try to  adopt,  for  such  comparisons,  the  percentage  of  residue 
remaining  after  the  sample  of  oil  has  been  gradually  brought 
to  a  temperature  of  570  deg.  F.  and  then  subjected  to  this 


FUEL    OIL 


88 


temperature  for  120  hours,  in  a  closed  furnace,  in  which  com- 
bustion does  not  take  place.  Under  this  treatment  the  sample 
is  reduced  to  practically  constant  weight.  It  has  been  de- 
termined that,  so  long  as  this  residue  is  less  than  10  per 
cent  of  the  original  weight  of  the  sample,  unreasonably  fre- 
quent cleaning  is  not  necessary.  This  percentage  is  equiv- 
alent to  anywhere  from  7  to  30  per  cent  of  "asphaltum,"  ac- 
cording to  the  various  methods  of  determination  in  use.  If 
the  fuel  oil  contains  more  than  the  above-mentioned  10  per 
cent  of  residue,  its  use  must  be  guided  by  the  relative  cost  of 
the  oil,  and  the  cost  and  inconvenience  of  labor  and  stop- 
pages required  for  the  more  frequent  cleaning.  The  form 
of  the  atomizer  does  not  appear  to  have  any  bearing  upon  this 
question,  as  the  substance  does  not  become  objectionable  until 
after  the  fuel  has  entered  the  cylinder  and  its  most  volatile 
constituents  have  become  gasified;  although  it  may  render 
the  fuel  so  'Tieavy"  that  warming  is  necessary  to  enable  the 
oil  to  flow  to  and  be  handled  by  the  fuel  pump  of  the  engine. 
Fig.  10  illustrates  the  consumption  of  fuel  oils  of 
widely  varying  gravity,  in  the  same  engine. 


^ 


12'  Mex/CAN  CRUDf          17360  BTU 

ir  TCXAS  CfiUD£             I783S  BTU 

19'  TfxAs  CifUDe          /eese  Bra 

59'  £AST£ffN DiSTtUATi /9525  BTU 


\  %  %  %  '^  %.  %  % 

B'*AH£  /^oftse  Pewefi:-  Fun  Ioad'/OO'/ 
Fi/ei  CoAfst/Mf>r/o/v  Curves 
"Au/s-  C/fAiMt/fS' S//^'GLe  Cr-t/A/as/f  On  F/vo/f^e 

Pig.  10.     Fuel  Consumption  Curves, 


34  THE    DIESEL    ENGINE    IN    PRACTICE 

The  fuel  oils  of  the  West  that  are  available  on  the 
Pacific  Coast  all  fall  within  the  limits  set  forth  by  the 
Diesel  manufacturers  and  a  table  showing  their  com- 
position follows : 

Composition  of  Fuel   Oils. 

No.  1  2  3  4  5 

Producer:         Standard  Union  Union  King  Coalinga 

Oil  Co.  Oil  Co.  Oil  Co.  Oil  Co. 

Trade  Name:     "Calol"  Regular  "Diesol" 

Heat  Value.      Fuel  Oil.  Fuel  Oil.  Fuel  Oil.  Crude  Oil.  Crude.- 

B.t.u.   per  lb 19,250  19,136  19,100  19,229  18,642 

Gr.°B  at  60°  F..         27.20  15.7  25  29.2  19.4 

Flash  Point  °F.  .       212  146  200  130  149 

Burning  Point  °F.      234  304  235  145  201 

Sulphur 74%  .89%  .73%  1.18%  .66% 

Water 08%  .08%  .08%  .08%  .68% 

Residue    3.      %  15.1    %  3.9%  .2   %  9.8   % 

Asphaltum 25.      %  50.      %  20.      % 

Price  f.o.b 80c  70c  SOc  65c  60c 

Refinery  per  bbl.  f.o.b.  f.o.b. 

Field.  Field. 

Mexican   Crude. — 

B.t.u.    per   lb 18,127  18,097            18,776  18,499 

Gravity  °B  at  60°  F 17.46  19.5  17.6  18.5 

Flash   Point    °F 186  182  268  97 

Burning  Point    °F 213  212  237  138 

Sulphur    2.12%  2.0%,  2.44%  3.92% 

Asphaltum     39.3    %  43.7%  53.0    %  54.9    % 

This  table  shows  the  percentage  of  asphalt  by  the 
evaporation,  as  usual  with  oil  companies,  and  also  by 
the  test  as  mentioned  above  for  the  determination  of 
asphaltum  or  residue.  Nos.  1,  2  and  3  are  products  of 
the  refinery,  having  the  gasoline  removed.  The  oils 
sell  for  approximately  the  price  noted,  the  California 
fuel  oil  least  fitted  for  use  in  the  engine,  No.  2  of  the 
table  is  the  most  economical  if  the  selling  price  is 
from  1-8  to  1-10  of  a  cent  less  per  gallon  than  such  oil 
as  "Calol"  fuel  oil  No.  1  or  "Diesol"  fuel  oil  No.  3,  con- 
sidered to  be  the  most  adaptable,  commercially,  of  the 


FUEL    OIL 


35 


California  oils.  It  would  appear  more  economical  to 
use  No.  2,  not  taking  into  consideration  the  cost  of 
heating  this  low  gravity  oil  to  make  it  flow  readily  to 
the  fuel  oil  pump.  The  Mexican  oils  are  expensive 
at  any  price,  due  to  the  high  sulphur  content.  It  may 
be  roughly  stated  that  any  oil  that  will  flow  through 
a  1  in.  pipe  from  a  gravity  tank  and  available  for  pur- 
chase on  the  Pacific  Coast  can  be  used  in  the  Diesel 
engine.     If  the  oil  is  at.  such  .a  gravity  that  it  will  not 


20  2 

Fig. 


22'  23*  24'  25°  26'  27'         28'  29*  30' 

11.     Gravity   Correction   Curve   for   Temperature. 


,4tf 


flow  at  room  temperature  it  must  be  heated.  This  can 
be  easily  accomplished  by  making  use  of  the  water 
for  cooling  the  engine  which  usually  flows  out  at  110 
degrees  to  130  degrees.  Fig.  11  shows  the  effect  of 
temperature  upon  gravity.  A  20  degree  Beaume  oil 
at  60  degrees  Fahr.  heated  to  100  degrees  Fahr.  is 
equivalent  to  a  22.5  degree  Beaume  oil  and  its  viscosity 
will  be  increased-  and  the  oil  will  flow  more  readily. 
Although  oil  is  generally  spoken  of  in  degrees  Beaume 
the  real  comparison  should  be  based  on  specific  grav- 


36  THE    DIESEL    ENGINE    IN    PRACTICE 

ity,  the  relative  weight  per  unit  of  volume  compared  to 
water  at  a  given  temperature.  The  table  showing  this 
comparison  follows : 

Data   for  Fuel   Oil. 


Specific 

Wgt. 

Wgt. 

Wgt. 

Cu.  Ft. 

Gal. 

Bbl. 

Gravity. 

B.° 

Gal. 

Bbl. 

Cu.  Ft. 

Ton. 

Ton. 

Ton. 

1.0000 

10 

8.33 

349.86 

62.355 

35.9 

268.9 

6.43 

.9929 

11 

8.27 

347.34 

61.912 

36.1 

270.8 

6.46 

.9859 

12 

8.21 

344.82 

61.475 

36.5 

272.8 

6.50 

.9790 

13 

8.16 

342.72 

61.045 

36.7 

274.6 

6.54 

.9722 

14 

8.10 

340.20 

60.621 

36.9 

276.6 

6.59 

.9655 

15 

8.04 

337.68 

60.202 

37.2 

278.6 

6.65 

.9589 

16 

7.99 

335.58 

59.792 

37.5 

280.3 

6.69 

.9523 

17 

7.93 

333.06 

59.380 

37.7 

282.4 

6.73 

.9459 

18 

7.88 

330.96 

58,981 

38.1 

284.2 

6.77 

.9395 

19 

7.83 

328.86 

58.582 

38.3 

286. 

6.82 

.9333 

20 

7.78 

326.76 

58,195 

38.5 

287.9 

6.86 

.9271 

21 

7.72 

324.24 

57.809 

38.8 

290. 

6.91 

.9210 

22 

7.67 

322.14 

57,428 

39. 

292. 

6.96 

.9150 

23 

7.62 

320.04 

57.053 

39.2 

293.9 

7.01 

.9090 

24 

7.57 

317.94 

56.680 

39.5 

295.7 

7.06 

.9032 

25 

7.53 

316.26 

56.319 

39.8 

297.4 

7.09 

.8974 

26 

7.48 

314.16 

55.957 

40.1 

299.4 

7.14 

.8917 

27 

7.43 

312.06 

55.601 

40.3 

301.4 

7.18 

.8860 

28 

7.38 

309.96 

55.149 

40.6 

303.5 

7.24 

.8805 

29 

7.34 

308.28 

54.903 

40.8 

305.2 

7.28 

.8750 

30 

7.29 

306.18 

54.560 

41.1 

307.2 

7.32 

.8484 

35 

7.07 

296.94 

52.991 

42.4 

316.8 

7.55 

.8235 

40 

6.86 

288.12 

51,349 

43.7 
140 

326.3 

7.78 

The  above  tabl< 

5  is  based  on  the 

formula 

Sp.  Gr. 

1  Qrt  _L 

0  -Ra  _Z_ 

For  each  10°  F.  above  60°  F.  add  0.7°  Be. 
For  each  10°  F.  below  60°  F.  subtract  0.7°  Be. 
42   gal.  =zl   bbl.  1   ton  z=:  2,240   lb. 

The  matter  of  using  the  lower  gravity  and  lower 
priced  oil  is  a  matter  that  must  be  determined  in  each 
separate  installation,  based  on  the  character  of  the 
service  the  engine  has  to  perform.  Uniformity  of  the 
oil  that  has  passed  through  the  refinery  is  of  extreme 
value,  its  composition  between  limits  being  guaranteed 
by  the  seller  while  the  composition  of  native  crude  oil 
is  exceedingly  uncertain.  It  is  easy  to  understand  that 
the  cheapest  oil  is  not  always  the  most  economical,  for 


FUEL    OIL  37 

the  cost  of  repairs  and  attention  will  necessarily  in- 
crease as  the  quality  of  the  oil  decreases.  It  has  been 
the  experience  of  a  large  majority  of  Diesel  users  that 
the  slight  increase  in  the  cost  of  the  better  oil  is  eco- 
nomical and  advisable  in  the  long  run,  just  as  the  use 
of  fuel  under  boilers,  particularly  of  coal,  the  cheapest 
coal  is  not  necessarily  the  most  economic  fuel 

Guarantees  for  fuel  consumption  will  be  main- 
tained with  oil  falling  within  the  following  limits : 

Gravity  at  60  degrees  F.  not  heavier  than  20  degrees  nor 
lighter  than  40  degrees  Beaume. 

Flash  point  between  125  and  250  degrees  F.  burning  point 
between  160  and  300  degrees  F. 

Sulphur  between  .5  per  cent  to  ll^  per  cent. 

Water  not  over  .3  per  cent. 

Ash  not  over  .01  per  cent. 

Residue    not    over    10    or    15    per    cent. 

Heat  Value:  The  heat  value  usually  ranges  between 
18,000  British  thermal  units  (B.t.u.)  per  pound  and  19,000 
B.t.u.  per  pound. 

Flash  and  burning  points  are  specified  on  account 
of  the  hazard  of  storage.  If  the  oil  is  stored  under- 
ground a  flashpoint  as  low  as  95  degrees  F.  and  125 
degrees  F.  may  be  used.  On  the  newer  type  engines 
sulphur  as  high  as  2j^  per  cent  is  not  objectionable. 

A  residue  of  10  per  cent  is  conservative.  Many 
plants  are  in  operation  successfully  with  fuel  as  high 
as  15  per  cent  based  on  the  test  for  120  hours.  This 
is  equivalent  to  approximately  30  per  cent  asphaltum 
by  evaporation.  It  may  be  stated,  however,  that 
usually  manufacturers  are  very  conservative  as  to  the 
quality  of  oil  recommended  for  use  in  the  engine,  while 
some  others  are  prone  to  make  extravagant  statements 
that  cannot  be  lived  up  to  in  practice  with  good  service. 


38  THE    DIESEL    ENGINE    IN    PRACTICE 

The  production  of  fuel  oil  and  its  future  is  a  ques- 
tion that  presents  itself  to  every  prospective  Diesel 
engine   purchaser.     The   table   shown   herewith   gives 

Oil  Pro<liiotioi»  in  Hnrrel.s. 

State.  1914.  1913 

California     103,000,000  97,788,525 

Oklahoma 98,000,000  63,579,384 

Illinois    21,000,000  23,893,899 

Texas     20,000,000  15,009,478 

Louisiana     15,000,000  12,498,828 

West  Virginia    11,000,000  11,567,299 

Ohio 7,500.000  8,781,468 

Pennsylvania    7,000,000  7,963,282 

V^yoming    4,600,000  2,406,522 

Kansas    2,700,000  2,375,029 

Indiana     700,000  956,095 

New    York     800,000  902,211 

Kentucky    500,000  524,568 

Colorado    150,000  J  88,790 

other    States 50,000  10,843 

292,000,000  248,446,230 

the  production  of  oil  as  compiled  by  the  United  States 
Geological  Survey.  As  the  oil  generally  used  in  a 
Diesel  engine  throughout  the  United  States  is  prac- 
tically a  by-product  of  gasoline,  there  is  little  likeli- 
hood of  it  ever  increasing  in  price  beyond  a  reason- 
able limit.  The  fact  that  all  of  the  principal  oil  pro- 
ducing companies  in  the  United  States  have  oil  to 
offer  that  is  acceptable  to  the  Diesel  engine  users  and 
competition  may  at  all  times  be  expected  is  another 
point  to  be  taken  into  consideration  in  regard  to  an 
advance  in  price.  The  oil  for  Diesel  engines  is  not 
available  in  drums  or  barrels  being  shipped  in  tank 
cars  of  from  6500  gallons  to  13,000  gallons  capacity. 
The  plant  usually  has  a  tank  of  sufficient  capacity  to 
take  a  carload  with  a  slight  overlap,  a  20,000  gallon 
tank  being  sufficient  with  the  size  tank  car  now  in  use. 


CHAPTER   V 

EFFECT  OF  ALTITUDE 

Due  to  the  reduced  density,  that  is  the  weight 
per  cubic  foot  of  the  atmosphere  at  higher  altitudes, 
the  amount  of  oxygen  drawn  into  an  engine  cylinder  is 
lessened  and  therefore  the  quantity  of  fuel  with  which 
it  will  combine  and  burn  is  relatively  decreased.  Con- 
sequently a  Diesel  engine  will  not  develop  as  much 
power  at  a  higher  elevation  as  it  will  at  lower  alti- 
tudes. For  altitudes  less  than  500  ft.  above  sea  level 
no  reduction  in  horsepower  or  alteration  of  fuel  con- 
sumption need  be  contemplated  but  at  higher  eleva- 
tions a  reduction  in  horsepower  is  necessary  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  accompanying  table  : 

Effect   of  Altitude. 

Table  of  Altitudes  in  feet  above  sea-level;  with  cor- 
respond,lng-  approximate  Barometric  Readings,  Atmospheric 
Pressures     and     proportionate     Densities. 

(The  capacity  of  an  internal  combustion  engine  at  higher 
altitudes,  as  compared  with  its  capacity  at  sea-level,  is  prac- 
tically proportional   to   the   atmospheric   densities.) 


Utitude 

Barometer 

Atmospheric 

Proportionate 

in 

in 

Pressure 

Atmospheric 

Feet. 

Inches. 

in  lb.  per  sq.  in. 

Density. 

0.00 

30.0 

14.72 

1.00 

500. 

29.5 

14.45 

0.98 

1000. 

28.9 

14.18 

0.96 

1500. 

28.4 

13.94 

0.94 

2000. 

27.9 

13.69 

0.93 

2500. 

27.4 

13.45 

0.91 

3000. 

26.9 

13.20 

0.89 

4000. 

26.0 

12.75 

0.86 

5000. 

25.1 

12.30 

0.83 

6000. 

24.2 

11.85 

0.80 

7000. 

23.3 

11.44 

0.77 

8000. 

22.5 

11.04 

0.75 

9000. 

21.7 

10.65 

0.73 

10000. 

20.9 

10.26 

0.70 

40  THE    DIESEL    ENGINE    IN    PRACTICE 

This  table  shows  the  height  of  the  barometer  in 
inches  and  the  equivalent  density  of  the  atmosphere. 
The  horsepower  output  of  the  engine  will  be  propor- 
tionate to  the  equivalent  density,  that  is,  a  500  h.p. 
at  sea  level,  at  SOOO  ft.  elevation  500x.83  or  415  h.p. 
The  fuel  consumption  of  this  engine,  however,  must 
also  be  revised,  an  addition  of  1  per  cent  or  fraction 
thereof  being  made  for  each  1000  ft.  elevation. 

The  capacity  of  the  cylinder  also  definitely  limits 
the  output  of  an  internal  combustion  cylinder  at  any 
altitude,  as  the  combustion  of  the  fuel  depends  entirely 
upon  the  amount  of  oxygen  in  the  cylinder,  a  certain 
amount  of  oxygen  giving  complete  combustion  to  a 
certain  amount  of  fuel  oil,  which  in  turn  develops  a 
certain  amount  of  power.  Ordinarily  internal  combus- 
tion engines  are  rated  at  10  per  cent  below  their  ulti- 
mate capacity  and  it  is  dangerous  and  uneconomical  to 
operate  the  engines  at  a  greater  load  than  specified 
by  the  manufacturers,  although  this  may  be  possible 
for  short  intervals.  The  evidence  of  smoke  coming 
from  the  exhaust  shows  that  the  combustion  in  the  cyl- 
inder has  not  been  complete  and  is  the  forerunner  of 
a  flame  in  place  of  the  usual  exhaust  dry  gas.  This 
flame  Avill  burn  and  destroy  the  exhaust  valve. 

The  electric  generator  manufacturers  supply  a 
generator  especially  rated  for  internal  combustion  en- 
gines. These  machines  are  not  capable  of  standing 
the  usual  overload  guarantee  of  25  per  cent  for  2  hours 
but  instead  will  only  carry  15  per  cent  overload,  cor- 
responding to  the  overload  capacity  of  internal  com- 
bustion engines.  It  would  be  manifestly  uneconomical 
to  purchase  a  generator  having  a  greater  ultimate 
capacity  than  that  of  the  engine. 


EFFECT    OF    ALTITUDE  41 

It  cannot  be  emphasized  too  strongly  that  when 
a  generator  is  part  of  the  Diesel  equipment  its  selection 
must  be  given  as  much  care  as  the  engine  itself  and 
the  reliability  of  the  manufacturer  and  the  guarantees 
offered  must  be  carefully  analyzed.  In  alternating 
current  applications  the  ability  of  the  generators  to 
operate  in  parallel  when  driver  by  oil  engines  must 
be  thoroughly  understood  and  guaranteed  by  the  elec- 
trical manufacturer. 

Foundation. 

An  important  element  in  the  erection  of  the  Diesel 
engine  is  the  foundation,  which  on  good  ground  will 
vary,  depending  upon  the  size  of  engine,  from  40  cu. 
yd.  for  a  100  h.p.  to  125  cu.  yd.  for  a  500  h.p.  engine 
of  the  vertical  type.  This  foundation  should  be  con- 
structed of  concrete,  1  part  cement,  2J^  parts  sand 
and  5  parts  clean  stone  broken  to  pass  a  2  in.  ring, 
to  be  mixed  wet  and  rammed  every  8  in.  depth  until 
water  appears  on  the  surface.  The  templets  which 
are  set  for  the  anchor  bolts  should  remain  open  to 
permit  ramming.  Concrete  should  not  be  allowed  to 
set  hard  before  other  concrete  is  placed  on  it,  other- 
wise sound  bonding  between  portions  is  impossible. 
Around  each  foundation  bolt  a  wooden  box  approxi- 
mately 4  in.  square  and  at  least  4  ft.  long  should  be 
placed,  the  box  to  have  a  taper  toward  the  top  so  that 
the  box  may  be  removed.  If  preferred,  4  in.  diameter 
galvanized  spouting  may  be  used  and  left  in  the  foun- 
dation, projecting  not  more  than  ^  in.  above  the 
concrete.  Grouting  should  be  of  equal  parts  of  Port- 
land cement  and  clean  sand  mixed  wet  enough  to 
flow  readily.  The  grouting  must  fill  all  of  the  space 
around  the  foundation  bolts. 


CHAPrER  VI 
OPERATION  AND  CARE  OF  ENGINES 

With  the  type  of  engine  now  most  extensively 
used  in  the  United  States,  that  is  the  Diesel  with  the 
splash  lubrication  system,  there  is  any  amount  of  un- 
pleasant work,  especially  when  the  engine  requires 
attention  inside  the  crank  case.  Few  men,  unless  they 
are  reasonably  paid,  are  willing  to  do  this  ''dirty" 
work,  as  it  might  be  called,  together  with  the  fine  at- 
tention required  by  the  main  bearings,  keeping  the 
shaft  in  line  and  other  adjustments  that  are  made  in- 
side the  crank  case. 

The  Diesel  engines  that  are  being  manufactured 
today  of  the  later  type  are  greatly  improved  in  this 
respect;  the  majority  of  them  have  forced  lubrication 
so  the  inside  of  the  engine  is  naturally  cleaner  for 
working. 

One  of  the  most  important  things  in  connection 
with  the  Diesel  engine  is  cleanliness.  Nine  times  out 
of  ten  if  you  should  meet  the  engineer  outside  of  his 
plant  at  any  time  during  his  watch  you  could  safely 
judge  the  condition  of  his  engine  from  his  personal 
appearance.  An  engineer  who  lacks  pride  in  keeping 
himself  clean  will  never  have  a  clean  engine  room.  In 
a  great  many  plants  visited  by  the  writer  the  engine 
or  engines  were  so  dirty  and  covered  with  oil  that  it 
was  impossible  to  go  near  them  until  they  had  been 
thoroughly  cleaned.    Sometimes  this  would  take  a  day 


OPERATION    AND    CARE    OF    ENGINES  43 

or  two.  There  is  no  leak  around  a  Diesel  engine  that 
cannot  be  stopped.  It  is  an  old  saying  that  little  things 
make  big  ones  and  if  small  leaks,  when  they  are  first 
seen,  are  attended  to  there  will  be  no  large  leaks.  As 
a  general  rule  all  of  these  leaks  are  either  a  loss  of 
fuel  oil  or  lubricating  oil,  either  one  of  which  is  an 
expense  to  the  owner. 

All  true  Diesel  engines  work  along  the  same 
lines  and  require  about  the  same  care,  but  some,  due  to 
their  construction,  require  more  attention  in  regard 
to  cleanliness  than  others.  As  to  the  operation  of  the 
engine  there  is  but  one  way  to  be  successful  and  that 
is  to  be  clean  about  all  your  work  in  connection  with 
the  engine,  as  dirt  to  any  extent  is  the  worst  enemy 
of  machinery  and  especially  a  Diesel  engine.  It  is 
always  wise  for  the  engineer  to  be  on  duty  in  ample 
time  to  carry  out  the  necessary  preparations  for  start- 
ing the  engine  without  undue  haste. 

Some  instructions  will  tell  the  engineer  to  place 
his  engine  in  starting  position  as  soon  as  the  engine  is 
shut  down.  I  do  not  agree  with  this.  It  is  well  to  get 
the  engine  on  the  right  revolution  for  starting  but  not 
to  bring  up  to  the  starting  position  until  almost 
time  to  commence  operation.  If  the  engine  is  placed 
in  starting  position  and  left  over  night,  with  some 
types,  the  starting  valve  is  held  open  during  the  time 
by  the  starting  valve  cam.  This  valve  is  closed  by  a 
spring  and  as  there  is  always  more  or  less  moisture  in 
the  starting  air  it  will  cause  corrosion  around  the  valve 
stem  and  often  times  the  valve  will  not  close  as  quick- 
ly as  it  should,  causing  a  false  start.  It  is  the  writer's 
l)elief  that  just  this  trouble  was  often  the  cause  of 
broken  shafts  in  the  early  days  of  the  Diesel  engine. 
If  the  engine  is  left  just  back  of  starting  center  until 


44  THE    DIESEL    ENGINE    IN    PRACTICE 

the  time  of  starting  when  it  is  turned  up  into  starting 
position  it  will  move  this  valve  and  break  the  corrosion 
if  it  has  set  in. 

There  are  so  many  different  designs  of  the  Diesel 
engine  being  built  at  this  time  that  it  is  hard  to  de- 
scribe the  starting  moves  of  each  engine,  but  the  re- 
sult of  all  is  the  same.  After  the  engine  is  placed 
in  starting  position,  the  engineer  is  ready  to  prime 
the  fuel  oil  pump  or  start  a  flow  of  oil  through  the 
pump  to  the  telltale,  according  to  the  design  of  the 
engine,  it  being  necessary  to  get  a  solid  stream  of  oil 
at  the  telltale  before  the  pump  is,  ready  to  operate. 
If  air  should  be  in  the  oil  line  or  pump  it  is  doubtful 
if  the  engine  will  pick  up  oi  start  work  at  once  and 
it  often  is  the  cause  of  a  false  start  and  the  loss  of 
starting  air,  which,  of  course,  is  undesirable  in  con- 
nection with  the  Diesel  engine.  The  engineer  should 
always  see  that  the  circulating  waiter  is  running 
through  the  engine  before  it  is  started ;  if  this  should  be 
neglected  and  the  water  is  low  in  the  cylinder  and 
closed  when  starting  the  engine  so  that  regardless  of 
the  decrease  of  air  in  the  starting  bottles  the  spray 
bottle  pressure  will  be  kept  as  high  as  possible  and 
must  always  be  at  least  100  lb.  above  the  compres- 
sion in  the  engine  cylinders.  If  the  pressure  in  the 
spray  bottle  should  get  lower  than  the  pressure  in 
the  cylinder  when  the  fuel  needle  opens,  there  would 
be  insufficient  spray  air  pressure  to  blow  the  fuel  into 
the  cylinder  and  the  heat  from  the  compression  would 
be  liable  to  ignite  the  oil  in  the  atomizer  and  cause 
severe  trouble. 

After  the  engine  is  started  it  is  always  wise  to 
refill  the  starting  bottles  as  soon  as  possible 
and   close   the  valves   tightlv  to  prevent   loss   of  air. 


OPERATION    AND    CARE    OF    ENGINES  45 

Then  all  lubricators  should  be  looked  after  to  see  that 
they  are  doing  their  work  and  kept  well  filled.  The 
circulating  water  should  be  regulated  according  to  the 
load  on  the  engine  so  that  it  is  not  above  130  degree*^ 
Fahrenheit  or  cooler  than  90  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

With  engines  of  the  enclosed  crank  case  type  and     ^ 
splash     lubrication    many    engineers    have    found  _itAw- 
turned  on  after  the  engine  is  started  it  is  often  the    '"^ 
cause  of  cracked  cylinder  heads,  as  the  piston  of  the 
Diesel  engine  only  has  to  make  a  few  strokes  before 
the  heat  of  the  compression  and  the  burning  oil  would 
raise  the  temperature  of  the  head  to  such  a  degree  that 
water  coming  in  contact  with  it    would    cause    it    to 
crack. 

With  all  Diesel  engines  air  bottles,  or  tanks,  or 
vessels  as  they  may  be  called,  are  shipped  with  the  en- 
gine forming  part  of  the  installation.  These  bottles  are 
all  tested  to  3000  lb.  and  as  a  general  rule  are  shipped 
from  the  factory  containing  air  at  1200  lb.  per  sq.  in. 
Some  builders  ship  six  bottles,  some  three.  Where 
there  are  six  bottles  four  are  for  starting  and  used  for 
this  purpose  only.  The  other  two  are  used  for  atomiz- 
ing or  spray  air.  Two  starting  bottles  are  used  at  one 
time  and  one  spray  bottle  where  six  bottles  are  pro- 
vided. The  header  which  connects  the  bottles  together 
is  always  provided  with  a  valve  between  the  starting 
set  and  spray  bottles.  This  valve  should  always  be 
level   and   the   rigfht   mixture.      Practirallv   ^11    of   the 


ERRATA  NOTE 


e  top  of 
mgineer 


Lines  8  to  27,  page  45,  should  follow  rht  mix- 

line  20,  page  44.  ^    ^^^er 

Line  6,  page  46,  should  follow  line  7,  P^^^tmg 
page  45. 


44  THE    DIESEL    ENGINE    IN    PRACTICE 

the  time  of  starting  when  it  is  turned  up  into  starting 
position  it  will  move  this  valve  and  break  the  corrosion 
if  it  has  set  in. 

There  are  so  many  different  designs  of  the  Diesel 
engine  being  built  at  this  time  that  it  is  hard  to  de- 
scribe the  starting  moves  of  each  engine,  but  the  re- 
sult of  all  is  the  same.  After  the  engine  is  placed 
in  starting  position,  the  engineer  is  ready  to  prime 
the  fuel  oil  pump  or  start  a  flow  of  oil  through  the 
pump  to  the  telltale,  according  to  the  design  of  the 
engine,  it  being  necessary  to  get  a  solid  stream  of  oil 
at  the  telltale  before  the  pump  is,  ready  to  operate. 
If  air  should  be  in  the  oil  line  or  pump  it  is  doubtful 
if  the  engine  will  pick  up  oi  start  work  at  once  and 
it  often  is  the  cause  of  a  false  start  and  the  loss  of 
starting  air,  which,  of  course,  is  undesirable  in  con- 
nection with  the  Diesel  engine.  The  engineer  should 
always  see  that  the  circulating  water  is  running 
through  the  engine  before  it  is  started ;  if  this  should  be 
neglected  and  the  water  is  low  in  the  cylinder  and  ^ 
closed  when  starting  the  engine  so  that  regardless  of 
the  decrease  of  air  in  the  starting  bottles  the  spray 
bottle  pressure  will  be  kept  as  high  as  possible  and 
must  always  be  at  least  100  lb.  above  the  compres- 
sion in  the  engine  cylinders.  If  the  pressure  in  the 
spray  bottle  should  get  lower  than  the  pressure  in 
the  cylinder  wh(  '  ^'^^"^  "pedle  opens,  there  would 
be  insufficient  s]  ''    '^  '^*^^-r^ 

the  cylinder  and  3iTOVi  ATA^a^a 

be  liable  to  igr  ^ollo^  Wijoila  ,a|,  ^     ^^nd 

severe  trouble.  *  9^^  ,\S  oi  8  ei 

After  the  .^  ^„ii  ^^j.  ,  •^'^  ssnq  .OS 

refill     the     sta  ^*'"'*^  Wuortt  ,9^  a^o,,  ^g  , 

and   close   the  ^;jk 


OPERATION    AND    CARE    OF    ENGINES  45 

Then  all  lubricators  should  be  looked  after  to  see  that 
they  are  doing  their  work  and  kept  well  filled.  The 
circulating  water  should  be  regulated  according  to  the 
load  on  the  engine  so  that  it  is  not  above  130  degree^! 
Fahrenheit  or  cooler  than  90  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

With  engines  of  the  enclosed  crank  case  type  and 
splash  lubrication  many  engineers  have  found  JXc^^ 
turned  on  after  the  engine  is  started  it  is  often  the  ^' 
cause  of  cracked  cylinder  heads,  as  the  piston  of  the 
Diesel  engine  only  has  to  make  a  few  strokes  before 
the  heat  of  the  compression  and  the  burning  oil  would 
raise  the  temperature  of  the  head  to  such  a  degree  that 
water  coming  in  contact  with  it  w^ould  cause  it  to 
crack. 

With  all  Diesel  engines  air  bottles,  or  tanks,  or 
vessels  as  they  may  be  called,  are  shipped  with  the  en- 
gine forming  part  of  the  installation.  These  bottles  are 
all  tested  to  3000  lb.  and  as  a  general  rule  are  shipped 
from  the  factory  containing  air  at  1200  lb.  per  sq.  in. 
Some  builders  ship  six  bottles,  some  three.  Where 
there  are  six  bottles  four  are  for  starting  and  used  for 
this  purpose  only.  The  other  two  are  used  for  atomiz- 
ing or  spray  air.  Two  starting  bottles  are  used  at  one 
time  and  one  spray  bottle  where  six  bottles  are  pro- 
vided. The  header  which  connects  the  bottles  together 
is  always  provided  with  a  valve  between  the  starting 
set  and  spray  bottles.  This  valve  should  always  be 
level  and  the  right  mixture.  Practically  all  of  the 
engines  of  this  type  have  a  lj4  in.  plug  in  the  top  of 
each  door.  If  before  the  engine  is  started  the  engineer 
is  sure  that  the  oil  and  water  are  about  the  right  mix- 
ture and  height  in  the  crank  case  he  should,  after 
starting  the  engine,  remove  the  plugs  and  by  putting 
his  finger  into  the  hole  in  the  door  he  will  soon  become 


46  THE    DIESEL    ENGINE    IN    PRACTICE 

accustomed  to  the  amount  of  oil  and  water  that 
splashes  so  that  any  time  while  the  engine  is  running 
he  can  do  this  and  feel  sure  as  to  the  amount  of  oil 
^  and  water  in  the  engine.  This  has  been  found  to  be 
>^  the  simplest  and  most  satisfactory  way  to  obtain  this 
^^^Ttroublesome  to  keep  the  water  and  oil  at  the  proper 
'\]  information. 

^-^  When  the  engine  is  running,  careful  v/atch  must 

be  kept  on  the  pressure  of  the  spray  air.  The  appear- 
ance of  the  exhaust  will  indicate  whether  the  air  is  too 
low  or  too  high.  If  it  is  too  high,  a  pound  will  be  heard 
on  the  fuel  valve  and  white  smoke  will  appear.  If  too 
low,  black  smoky  exhaust  will  appear.  It  is  always 
advisable,  if  possible,  to  let  the  circulating  water  run 
for  ten  or  fifteen  minutes  after  the  engine  is  shut  down 
so  as  to  cool  it  off  gradually.  The  tops  of  the  pistons 
in 'a  Diesel  engine  naturally  become  very  warm  while 
running  under  load  and  when  the  engine  is  shut  down, 
if  the  circulating  water  is  cut  off  at  once,  the  pistons 
in  a  stationary  position  will  heat  the  water  in  the  cyl- 
inder jacket  around  them  so  hot  that  the  lubricating 
oil  will  run  off  the  pistons  and  there  will  be  nothing 
left  to  lubricate  them  v/hen  the  engine  is  again  started. 
This  would  naturally  add  to  the  loss  of  compression 
and  sometimes  causes  trouble  in  starting.  Then  again 
the  hot  pistons  would  cause  the  gummy  oil  that  is 
around  the  rings  to  fry  and  cook  and  naturally  cause 
the  rings  to  stick.  Also  the  heat  from  the  piston  will 
heat  the  wrist  pin  at  this  time,  which  causes  the  oil 
to  run  off  of  that,  and  when  the  engine  is  started  it  is 
some  time  before  lubricating  oil  can  again  reach  this 
point. 

In  stopping  the  engine,  if  possible,  throw  the  load 
off  gradually.     If  it  is  necessary  at  any  time  to  shut 


OPERATION    AND    CARE    OF    ENGINES  47 

the  engine  down  quickly  in  case  of  accident  or  for 
some  other  reason,  the  quickest  way  is  to  shut  off  the 
fuel  and  let  the  engine  stop  or  die  with  the  load  on. 

In  nearly  all  Diesel  engines  there  is  a  small  hole 
provided  somewhere  in  the  exhaust  valve  cage  which 
allows  the  engineer  to  inject  a  little  coal  oil  on  the  ex- 
haust valve  stem.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  with 
a  small  load  on  the  engine  the  exhaust  valve  stem  is 
liable  to  become  gummed  with  the  unburnt  oil.  This, 
of  course,  greatly  depends  upon  the  kind  of  fuel  oil 
being  used.  A  fuel  oil  high  in  asphalt  is  more  liable 
to  cause  gumming  than  oil  with  a  paraffine  base. 
When  using  an  oil  with  an  asphalt  base  it  is  always 
quite  necessary  to  put  coal  oil  in  the  exhaust  valve 
stems  before  shutting  down.  The  spray  air  should 
never  be  shut  oflF  the  engine  until  it  is  almost  stopped. 
The  first  thing  to  do  is  to  shut  off  the  fuel,  which  is 
the  life  of  the  engine.  As  the  engine  starts  to  slow 
down  the  bleeders  on  the  air  compressor  should  be 
opened.  When  the  engine  is  at  a  standstill  close  the 
lubricators  on  the  engine  and  the  compressor  and  close 
the  valves  on  the  air  bottle  as  tightly  as  possible. 

The  care  of  the  valves  of  a  Diesel  engine  is  a  very 
important  thing,  as  the  success  of  the  operation  de- 
pends entirely  upon  their  being  kept  tight.  The  writer 
would  advise  the  owner  of  a  Diesel  engine  or  a  pros- 
pective purchaser,  to  always  have  a  number  of  spare 
parts  on  hand,  the  most  essential  being  one  admission 
valve  and  one  exhaust  valve  complete.  By  this  is 
meant  the  valves  and  the  cages  in  which  they  set.  In 
this  way  on  Sunday,  if  that  is  the  day  the  engine  is  to 
be  shut  down  for  a  few  hours'  inspection,  the  admis- 
Mon  valve  and  exhaust  valve  can  be  taken  out  of  one 
cylinder  and  the  two    valves  in  perfect  condition  put 


48  THE    DIESEL    ENGINE    IN    PRACTICE 

in  their  place.  The  following  week  the  engineer  could 
see  that  those  taken  out  were  put  in  condition  and 
ready  for  the  next  change.  This  could  be  continued, 
say  every  three  or  four  weeks,  so  there  never  would  be 
a  time  when  it  was  necessary  to  shut  the  engine  down 
to  grind  valves,  and  by  so  doing  the  valves  would 
always  be  in  good  condition.  If  the  engineer  tries  to 
grind  valves  on  a  Sunday,  or  any  day  that  might  be 
selected  for  the  two  or  three  hour  shut  down,  he  natur- 
ally does  the  work  in  a  hurry,  the  valves  being  more 
or  less  hot  and  the  work  is  not  done  properly.  In 
grinding  either  the  exhaust  or  admission  valve  it  may 
be  often  observed  after  grinding  a  few  minutes  that  the 
valve  and  seat  will  appear  to  be  in  perfect  condition  but 
it  is  always  a  good  idea  to  test  the  seats  before  putting 
the  valves  together.  A  good  way  to  do  that  is  to  wipe 
the  seat  of  the  cage  and  the  valve  as  clean  as  possible 
and  then  mark  the  seat  crosswise  about  1  inch  apart 
all  the  way  around  with  a  lead  pencil.  Then  put  the 
valve  in  place  and  give  it  half  a  turn.  If  by  so  doing 
all  pencil  marks  are  cut  off  the  valve  has  a  perfect  seat. 
If  any  of  the  marks  are  left  it  is  necessary  to  keep 
on  grinding  until  they  all  come  off  by  turning  the 
valve,  giving  an  absolute  assurance  of  a  good  seat. 

Nearly  all  Diesel  engine  builders  furnish  with  the 
engine  a  number  of  spare  parts,  consisting  of  one  fuel 
needle,  one  atomizer,  one  fuel  pump  plunger,  one  fuel 
pump  suction  valve,  one  fuel  pump  discharge  valve,  one 
complete  set  of  springs  for  all  valves  and  one  complete 
set  of  gaskets.  But  to  have  a  safe  supply  of  spare  parts 
everything  they  furnish  singly  should  be  brought  up  to 
the  number  of  cylinders  on  the  engine.  In  this  way  if  it 
IS  a  three-cylinder  engine  there  should  be  three  of  each 
of  the  parts,  while  if  of  four  cylinders  four  of  each  ex- 


OPERATION    AND    CARE    OF    ENGINES  49 

cept  gaskets.  Of  these  there  cannot  be  too  many,  and 
it  is  always  advisable  to  have  at  least  a  half  dozen  piston 
rings  on  hand.  The  cylinder  heads  should  be  lifted  at 
least  once  a  year,  the  pistons  taken  from  the  engine, 
the  wrist  pin  taken  out  and  the  bearings  examined  and 
refitted.  All  rings  should  be  removed  from  the  piston, 
the  ring  grooves  and  rings  thoroughly  cleaned  and  if 
any  of  the  rings  show  wear  they  should  be  replaced. 
At  such  a  time  during  the  overhauling  of  the  engine  all 
bearing  caps  should  be  lifted  and  the  shaft  and  bearings 
examined,  as  much  as  possible,  then  the  caps  reset 
and  locked. 

If  the  engine  is  of  splash  lubrication  the  lubri- 
cating oil  should  be  cleaned  out  of  the  crank  case  at 
least  once  in  six  months.  If  there  is  leakage  by  the 
rings  due  to  wear  or  stuck  rings,  it  is  necessary  to 
clean  the  crank  case  at  shorter  intervals.  The  engineer 
can  always  judge  the  condition  of  the  oil  in  the  crank 
case  by  its  color.  Even  though  the  oil  might  look 
dark,  by  taking  a  small  quantity  on  your  finger  and 
going  to  the  sunlight,  if  you  can  get  a  green  shade 
the  oil  is  still  good.  If  the  oil  shows  black  in  the  sun- 
light it  is  time  to  clean  the  crank  case.  The  proper 
way  of  doing  this  work  is  to  bail  out  all  the  oil  and 
water  that  can  be  taken  from  the  crank  case.  It  is  good 
practice,  at  such  a  time,  to  start  the  engine  up  with 
the  doors  ofif  and  watch  the  lost  motion  or  anything 
that  might  be  loose  in  the  crank  case  and  cannot  be 
seen  at  any  other  time,  but  it  is  inadvisable  to  run 
the  engine  longer  than  five  minutes  as  the  crank  pins 
will  get  hot.  After  this  inspection  is  finished  put  in 
the  regular  amount  of  water  that  would  ordinarily  be 
followed  by  a  new  supply  of  lubricating  oil,  then  add 
three  or  four  pails  of  fuel  oil  to  each  crank  pit,  put 


50  THE    DIESEL    ENGINE    IN    PRACTICE 

the  doors  on  and  start  the  engine  and  run  it  for  15  min- 
utes. It  will  be  found  when  the  doors  are  taken  off 
that  the  working  parts  of  the  engine  are  thoroughly 
washed  off,  this  method  cleaning  the  bearings  where  it 
is  impossible  to  wipe  out  the  dirt.  It  also  prevents 
either  the  lint  from  rags  or  waste  that  might  be  used 
in  cleaning  remaining  in  the  crank  case  and  finally  after 
running  collecting  in  the  lubricating  holes  of  the  bear- 
ings. The  water  and  oil  should  then  be  bailed  out  and 
thrown  away,  the  usual  amount  of  water  and  lubri- 
cating oil  placed  in  the  case  ready  for  running.  Waste 
should  never  be  used  at  any  time  inside  of  the  engine, 
or  in  any  place  where  it  might  fall  in  while  the  doors 
are  ofif. 

In  the  setting  of  the  main  bearing  caps  it  is  a  good 
idea,  in  order  that  the  clearance  may  be  known  exactly, 
to  use  No.  10  fuse  wire,  placing  four  pieces  across  the 
shaft,  one  at  each  end  and  two  near  the  center,  then 
putting  the  cap  on  and  pulling  down  as  hard  on  the 
nuts  as  possible  so  as  to  allow  about  .006  clearance, 
then  mark  the  nuts  and  bearing  with  a  center  punch 
so  that  they  may  be  brought  back  to  the  same  place. 
After  removing  the  wires  build  up  with  metal  shims 
until  it  is  all  you  can  do  to  pull  the  nuts  down  to  the 
marked  places.  Then  your  cap  will  be  solid  and  you 
know  the  clearance  is  correct. 

After  once  going  over  the  engine  in  this  way  and 
resetting  caps  with  thin  shims  it  will  be  easier  to  make 
the  adjustments  from  that  on  as  one  can  be  taken  out 
from  each  side,  the  cap  pulled  down  as  hard  as  possible 
and  the  engine  turned  over;  if  it  turns  free  it  is  all 
right  to  go  ahead  with  another  run  or  until  it  is  neces- 
sary to  overhaul  again. 


OPERATION    AND    CARE    OF    ENGINES  51 

The  admission  valve  is  contained  in  a  cage  de- 
signed to  permit  the  removal  of  both  valve  and  seat  to 
allow  of  easy  access  for  grinding.  If  the  valve  should 
get  into  bad  condition  it  may  be  necessary  to  ream 
the  seat  and  face  the  valve.  This  should  rarely  be 
necessary,  but  if  done,  great  care  should  be  used  in 
maintaining  a  true  and  even  pressure  on  both  valve  and 
seat  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees.  Every  precaution  must 
be  exercised  to  remove  all  cuttings  or  emery  and  all 
parts  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned.  When  replacing 
the  admission  valve  cage  into  the  cylinder  head  see  that 
all  contact  surfaces  of  both  the  head  and  cage  are  well 
cleaned  and  that  the  gasket  is  in  good  condition. 
Tighten  the  holding  down  nuts  with  a  wrench  only. 
Do  not  use  a  hammer  or  length  of  pipe  on  the  wrench 
and  be  careful  to  get  the  cage  down  evenly  on  the  joint. 
After  starting  the  engine  watch  the  valve  for  evidence 
of  leak,  and  should  there  be  a  sign  of  one  carefull}^ 
draw  up  on  the  nuts.  Do  not  delay  doing  this  or  the 
gasket  will  rapidly  burn  at  the  leak  and  have  to  be  re- 
placed. A  leaky  admission  cage  will  cause  a  serious 
loss  of  power. 

The  casting  which  contains  the  fuel  needle  and 
the  other  accessories  to  the  fuel  valve  is  known  as  the 
fuel  cage.  This  cage  is  an  iron  casting  which  is  sub- 
jected to  high  pressure.  The  high  pressure  in  this 
valve  is  confined  in  the  steel  bushing  which  is  pressed 
into  the  casting.  The  injection  air  and  fuel  oil  con- 
nections are  both  screwed  into  steel  bushings.  Water 
circulated  around  the  bushings  keeps  it  cool  and  pre- 
vents overheating  of  the  fuel  oil.  The  fuel  needle  is 
made  of  a  special  alloy  with  a  cast  iron  spring  case  on 
the  outer  end  in  which  the  spring  operates  to  close  the 
valve  against  the  action  of  the  fuel  cam. 


52  THE    DIESEL    ENGINE    IN    PRACTICE 

The  best  quality  of  woven  vulcabeston,  or  similar 
material,  should  be  used  for  packing  the  fuel  needle 
stuffing  box;  the  packing  must  contain  no  rubber  or 
gutta  percha,  as  oil  quickly  softens  and  destroys  these 
materials. 

The  atomizer  where  the  injection  air  and  fuel  oil 
meet  before  entering  the  cylinder  must  be  frequently 
examined  to  see  that  it  is  not  clogged  with  dirt,  which 
may  come  in  the  oil,  or  scale  from  the  pipes.  As  a 
precaution  against  the  clogging  of  the  atomizer  keep 
the  oil  strainer  clean.  The  fuel  needle  seat  should 
show  a  ring  all  around  about  1/32  in.  wide  and  should 
not  require  grinding  very  often.  A  reamer  and  guide 
should  be  on  hand  to  ream  this  seat  when  necessary, 
and  great  care  must  be  taken  to  apply  an  even  pressure 
to  the  reamer  to  prevent  chatter  marks  which  would 
spoil  the  seat.  To  prevent  undue  wearing  of  the 
needle  withdraw  it  once  a  week  and  oil  the  packing 
with  graphite  and  cylinder  oil  applied  by  means  of  a 
rag  on  a  wire.  The  needle  may  readily  be  withdrawn 
after  loosening  the  gland  nuts. 

The  exhaust  valve  seats  in  some  engines  are  not 
removable.  It  may  be  reamed  when  necessary,  using 
the  guide  furnished  with  the  reamer  which  fits  into 
the  head.  Care  must  be  exercised  to  cut  as  little  as 
possible  from  the  seat  and  to  maintain  an  equal  pres- 
sure on  the  reamer  to  insure  a  true  and  smooth  sur- 
face. When  the  valve  needs  refacing  it  should  be  put 
into  a  lathe  and  skimmed  ofif  by  a  competent  man, 
removing  no  more  material  than  necessary  to  true  up 
the  face  and  maintain  an  angle  of  45  degrees. 

It  is  the  writer's  opinion  that  all  Diesels  should 
be  provided  with  a  safety  valve  on  each  working  cyl- 
inder.    This  valve  is  intended  to  relieve  any  undue 


OPERATION    AND    CARE    OF    ENGINES  5:i 

pressure  in  the  cylinder  and  is  set  to  open  at  800  lb. 
per  sq.  in.  The  piston  traveling  slowly  downward  at 
the  time  the  first  ignition  takes  place  allows  the  pres- 
sure to  increase  above  the  normal;  the  relief  valve  is 
intended  to  take  care  of  this  increased  pressure.  Also 
in  case  needle  should  stick  open  and  allow  the  fuel  to 
enter  the  cylinder  during  the  compression  stroke  a 
premature  ignition  will  occur,  this  increased  pressure 
causing  the  relief  valve  to  pop  and  give  warning  that 
the  fuel  needle  is  sticking. 

The  fuel  pump  consists  in  general  of  fuel  plungers, 
suction  valves  and  discharge  valves,  together  with 
their  driving  and  controlling  mechanism.  The  plung- 
ers are  driven  by  eccentrics  and  are  attached  to  the 
suction  valve  mechanism  by  means  of  connecting  rods 
and  eccentric  levers.  Oil  is  delivered  to  the  chamber 
in  which  the  plunger  travels  through  a  mechanically 
operated  suction  valve.  The  plunger  in  its  turn  de- 
livers the  oil  through  the  discharge  valve  to  the  fuel 
valve  on  the  engine  cylinder.  The  opening  of  the 
suction  valve  is  controlled  by  an  eccentric  fulcrum, 
the  position  of  which  is  regulated  by  a  governor  ac- 
cording to  the  load  on  the  engine.  At  full  load  the 
suction  valve  starts  to  open  at  about  mid-position  of 
the  plunger  on  its  downward  suction  stroke  and  closes 
about  mid-position  on  the  upward  delivery  stroke. 
At  no  load  the  suction  valve  remains  open  during 
complete  upward  stroke  of  the  plunger.  The  fuel 
pump  suction  valve  is  made  of  steel  and  the  valve 
stems  are  nickel  steel.  The  stuffing  boxes  of  these 
valves  should  be  packed  with  Blackhawk  or  similar 
packing,  just  tightly  enough  to  prevent  leakage  as 
excessive   friction   prevents   the   springs   from   closing 


54  THE    DIESEL    ENGINE    IN    PRACTICE 

the  valves  promptly  and  affects  the  regulation  of  the 
engine. 

Careful  straining  of  the  fuel  oil  is  an  important 
factor  in  the  successful  operation  of  these  valves.  Dirt 
or  scale  may  mar  the  seats  sufficiently  to  affect  the 
operation  of  the  engine.  In  case  of  such  injury  to  a 
suction  valve  the  seat  should  be  reamed  with  a  tool 
provided  for  this  purpose  and  the  valve  trued  up  in  a 
good  lathe  by  a  careful  workman.  *  The  valve  should 
then  be  ground  in  the  seat  with  very  fine  emery  and 
finished  with  pumice  stone. 

When  replacing  the  valve  cage  after  having 
cleaned  all  parts  of  the  valve,  be  sure  to  get  the  lower 
joint  tight,  otherwise  no  oil  will  be  delivered  to  the 
fuel  value  and  no  work  done  in  the  cylinder.  This 
joint  is  made  with  a  corrugated  brass  gasket.  Both 
surfaces  of  the  joint  must  be  thoroughly  cleaned  and 
the  hole  in  the  gasket  must  be  large  enough  not  to 
interfere  with  the  operation  of  the  valve. 

The  fuel  pump  discharge  valves  usually  consist 
of  hardened  steel  balls  in  steel  cages.  When  the  fuel 
oil  is  thoroughly  strained  and  contains  no  grit,  these 
valves  require  little  attention.  Should  they  become 
worn  the  seats  must  be  reamed  and  a  new  ball  put  in 
place.  To  seat  the  new  ball  only  one  solid  tap  of  n 
hammer  is  necessary.  A  ball  set  should  be  used  foi 
this  work,  using  the  guide  which  comes  with  the 
reamer  as  a  guide  for  the  ball  set.  The  ball  set  is 
made  of  brass  or  steel  with  a  brass  tip  so  that  the  ball 
will  not  be  marred.  The  lift  of  the  ball  should  nut  be 
greater  than  1/16  in.  When  it  becomes  greater  than 
this,  due  to  wear  or  reaming  of  the  valve  seat,  it  is 
necessary  to  use  a  new  cage.  Test  the  discharge  valve 
to  know  that  it  is  tight.     To  do  this,  disconnect  the 


OPERATION    AND    GARE    OF    ENGINES  55 

supply  pipe  between  the  discharge  valve  and  the  fuel 
valve.  Place  a  cage  on  the  outlet  of  the  discharge 
valve  and  operate  the  fuel  pump  by  hand  to  obtain  a 
pressure  of  75  atmospheres  on  the  cage.  If  the  pres- 
svire  does  not  remain  constant,  look  for  a  leak  in  the 
gasket,  the  discharge  valve  or  the  suction  valve. 

The  injection  air  pressure  should  be  graduated 
according  to  the  load.  At  half  load,  and  under,  it 
should  range  from  50  to  60  atmospheres,  or  450  lb.  to 
900  lb.  per  sq.  in.  Above  half  load  from  65  to  70  at- 
mospheres, 975  to  1050  lb.  per  sq.  in.  It  is  desirable 
when  the  peak  of  the  load  runs  over  the  rated  load 
of  the  engine,  to  use  75  atmospheres,  1125  lb.  per  sq.  in 
If  this  pressure'  is  too  low  for  the  load  of  the  engine 
the  exhaust  will  smoke.  If  it  is  too  high  the  engine 
will  knock.  The  pressure  of  75  atmospheres  is  abso- 
lutely safe,  as  all  high  pressure  fittings  furnished  are 
tested  to  a  pressure  of  3000  lb.,  the  valves  to  2500  lb. 
and  the  tubing  to  6000  lb.  The  gauges  which  indicate 
the  injection  pressure  should  be  frequently  calibrated. 

In  every  engine  room  there  should  be  one  gauge 
fitted  with  a  valve  and  this  valve  kept  closed.  This 
gauge  may  then  be  used  at  any  time  for  comparison 
with  others.  By  holding  one  gauge  in  reserve  the 
others  may  frequently  be  checked  and  when  found 
incorrect,  easily  adjusted.  A  sudden  increase  or  de- 
crease  of  pressure  often  causes  a  gauge  to  read  incor- 
rectly. To  positively  check  gauges  for  correctness 
they  should,  say  every  six  months,  be  tested  by  means 
of  a  gauge  tester.  Gauges  in  use  for  some  time  tend 
to  read  high  and  lack  of  air  pressure  will  make  the 
engine  appear  overloaded. 

The  cylinders  of  practically  all  Diesel  engines  are 
lubricated  by  force  feeding.     The  lubricating  pump  in 


56  THE    DIESEL    ENGINE    IN    PRACTICE 

some  types  is  driven  from  the  end  of  the  cam  shaft 
and  must  always  receive  proper  care.  The  connecting 
rod  boxes,  shaft  bearings,  cam  rollers  and  all  wearing 
surfaces  enclosed  in  the  crank  case  are  kept  well 
oiled  by  the  splash  or  forced  lubrication.  In  splash 
lubrication  the  oil  is  thrown  by  the  crank  and  con- 
veyed to  the  various  parts  by  oil  grooves  and  oil 
holes  designed  for  the  purpose. 

The  oil  cups  on  the  fuel  pump  and  governor  must 
be  kept  well  filled.  No  lubrication  is  necessary  for  the 
admission  or  exhaust  valves,  but  the  admission  valve 
dash  pot  should  occasionally  be  oiled.  Where  splash 
lubrication  is  employed  three  or  four  pints  of  oil 
should  be  added  every  four  hours  to  crank  pits.  Three 
or  four  bucketsful  of  water  should  also  be  added  tc 
crank  pits  at  this  time.  Some  engines  will  evaporate 
more  water  than  others.  The  engineer  should  use  his 
judgment  in  order  to  keep  the  level  in  the  crank  case 
about  right. 

It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  the  fuel  valve 
be  correctly  timed,  that  is,  that  it  opens  to  admit 
fuel  at  the  proper  time  and  closes  at  the  correct  mo- 
ment after  the  fuel  is  all  injected.  Every  Diesel  en- 
gine builder  will  furnish  with  his  engine  a  table  giving 
the  correct  measurements  for  his  special  engine.  A 
typical  diagram  is  shown  in  Fig.  10.  If  the  fuel  valve 
opens  too  early  the  pressure  in  the  cylinder  will  in- 
crease. This  condition  should  be  avoided  as  it  causes 
excessive  wear  of  the  engine  bearings  without  increas- 
ing the  engine  capacity.  Do  not  increase  the  lead  be- 
yond that  given  in  the  table,  with  the  idea  of  forcing 
the  engine  to  pull  more  load.  The  figures  given  are 
sufficient  and  if  the  engine  will  not  pull  its  rated  load 
when  adjusted  correctly  look  elsewhere  for  the  trouble. 


OPERATION    AND    CARE    OF    ENGINES 


57 


If  the  fuel  valve  opens  too  late  difficulty  may  be  en- 
countered in  pulling  the  rated  load.  If  the  fuel  valve 
closes  too  early  the  engine  may  have  a  smoky  exhaust 
and  burn  too  much  fuel  for  the  load  which  it  is  run- 


BOTTOM  CENTER 

Fig.    10.     Typical   Valve    Timing   Diagram. 


ning.  If  the  fuel  valve  closes  too  late  injection  air 
will  be  wasted.  When  setting  the  fuel  valve  com- 
pressed air  in  the  air  storage  bottle  should  be  used 
to  indicate  the  exact  time  of  the  opening  of  the  needle. 


58  THE    DIESEL    ENGINE    IN    PRACTICE 

To  ascertain  the  point  of  opening  this  valve  proceed 
as  follows : 

By  barring  the  fly  wheel,  set  the  engine  a  few 
inches  back  of  the  position  at  which  the  valve  should 
open.  Pull  up  lever  that  relieves  the  compression  on 
the  cylinder  or  take  out  the  indicator  plug.  Then  turn 
the  fly  wheel  ahead  until  the  required  lead  is  reached, 
whether  it  be  2^  or  5  inches  or  more  before  the 
dead  center-mark  on  the  wheel  when  set  at  the  proper 
measurement  according  to  your  table  for  the  lead ;  turn 
on  the  injection  air  and  listen  at  the  indicator  hole  for 
a  leak  by  the  needle  into  the  cylinder.  If  you  hear 
nothing,  change  the  adjustment  of  the  valve  rod  until 
you  just  hear  the  least  bit  of  air  blowing  by.  Be  very 
careful  about  this  adjustment  and  see  that  the  blow 
is  the  same  after  you  have  regulated  your  adjustment. 

To  ascertain  the  point  of  closing  of  the  fuel 
valve  turn  the  fly  wheel  ahead  slowly  until  no 
air  'is  heard  to  escape  from  the  fuel  valve  when 
valve  on  the  air  line  is  open.  Determine  the 
point  of  closing  by  measuring  from  this  point, 
to  dead  center  position.  If  the  correct  opening 
and  closing  of  this  valve  cannot  be  accomplished  by 
adjusting  the  vertical  push  rod  it  is  then  necessary  to 
move  the  fuel  cam  nose  slightly  forward  or  backward, 
as  the  case  may  be,  in  the  cam  body.  When  the  fuel 
nose  is  in  its  correct  position  any  space  between  the 
ends  of  same  and  the  fuel  cam  body  should  be  care- 
fully and  tightly  filled  with  metal  shims  to  insure  the 
nose  remaining  securely  in  its  place.  It  is  good  policy 
to  check  the  timing  of  these  valves  at  least  once  a 
month.  Always  check  and  properly  time  these  valves 
after  a  fuel  needle  or  atomizer  has  been  removed  or 
reground,  and  also  at  any  time  that  it  has  been  found 


OPERATION    AND    CARE    OF    ENGINES  59 

necessary  to  take  the  needle  out  or  to  remove  the  valve 
cage. 

There  are  quite  a  number  of  differently  designed 
Diesel  engines  at  this  time  and  no  doubt  the  number 
will  increase  rapidly,  due  to  the  number  of  manufac- 
turers going  into  the  Diesel  engine  building,  but  all 
true  Diesels  work  along  the  same  lines.  Some  are  hor- 
izontal and  some  vertical,  but  the  timing  of  the  valves 
is  practically  the  same.  Some  of  the  latest  designs 
have  all  valves  in  the  top  of  the  head.  This  type  of 
engine  does  not  require  as  high  a  spray  pressure  as 
some  of  the  others,  air  pressure  ranging  from  40  to  65 
atmospheres,  600  to  975  lb.  per  sq.  in.,  according  to 
the  load. 


CHAPTER  VII 
DIESEL'S  LIFE  AND  RELIABILITY. 

The  life  of  a  Diesel  engine  is  something  that  is 
often  discussed.  It  is  not  unusual  to  find  steam  en- 
gines and  steam  pumps  which  have  been  in  service 
thirty  years,  maintained  in  fair  state  of  up-keep  by 
repairs  and  renewals.  The  frame,  shaft,  flywheel  and 
foundation,  representing  a  large  part  of  their  original 
cost,  continue  in  service.  Yet,  the  engine  and  pumps 
represent  less  than  forty  per  cent  of  the  cost  of  a  steam 
installation — about  sixty  per  cent  being  in  the  boilers, 
heaters,  condensers,  stack  and  piping.  Some  of  these 
features,  the  boilers  notably,  each  year  show  a  marked 
deterioriation  and  loss  in  efficiency.  None  of  these 
features  exist  in  the  Diesel,  and  its  life  will  compare 
most  favorably  with  the  entire  equipment  of  a  steam 
plant,  its  efficiency  throughout  its  life  remaining  prac- 
tically  unimpaired. 

The  story  of  the  Diesel  engine  is  quite  different 
from  that  of  gradual  obsolescence  of  the  old  steam 
plant.  Ten,  even  fifteen  years  ago,  when  the  Diesel 
was  first  built,  it  showed  the  same  extraordinary  effi- 
ciency. No  builder  of  Diesels  abroad,  nor  do  we  here, 
expect  to  increase  its  thermal  efficiency  to  a  very  great 
extent.  Diesel  progress  has  been  one  of  increasing 
refinements,  a  lengthening  of  its  life,  an  increasing  of 
its  reliability  and  facility  in  handling  and  a  perfection 


DIESEL'S    LIFE    AND    RELIABILITY  61 

of  its  governing  under  varying  loads.  In  these  it 
is  unapproached  by  any  other  type  of  prime  mover. 

The  heavily  designed  frame,  the  shaft,  and  con- 
necting rods,  the  massive  fly  wheel,  etc.,  form  a  much 
larger  proportionate  cost  of  Diesel  equipment  than 
do  these  parts  in  a  steam  installation.  Since  these 
non-wearing  parts  form  the  larger  cost,  those  parts 
which  wear  and  deteriorate  most,  of  necessity,  form 
a  less  proportionate  part  of  Diesel  equipment  than 
they  do  of  steam  equipment.  It  is  easy  to  realize  this 
by  recalling  that  the  entire  boiler  equipment,  with  all 
its  auxiliaries,  is  eliminated,  and  that  wear  and  tear 
is  confined  to  parts  which  represent  less  than  one- 
third  of  the  original  Diesel  investment. 

In  the  steam  engine  and  in  all  explosive  and 
hot-bulb  types  of  internal  combustion  engines,  leaky 
valves  and  worn  cylinders  result  in  reduced  efficiency, 
the  cause  of  which  is  not  always  apparent.  If  the 
engine  is  not  loaded  to  capacity  this  consequently  may 
not  be  detected  until  much  damage  has  been  done  and 
much  money  lost.  The  Diesel,  depending  upon  per- 
fect compression  for  its  ignition,  does  not  permit  a 
continuance  of  such  losses;  if  compression  fails  igni- 
tion ceases  and  the  engine  stops.  In  other  words  such 
conditions  as  militate  against  the  life  of  engines  and 
their  economy  absolutely  cannot  exist  long  enough 
in  the  Diesel  to  do  serious  damage,  or  consume  fuel 
in  useless  effort. 

Another  feature  of  the  Diesel  which  adds  to  its 
life,  and  which  sets  the  Diesel  apart  from  all  ex- 
plosive types,  is  the  absence  of  any  sudden  rise  in 
pressure  at  instant  of  combustion.  Gradual  introduc- 
tion of  fuel  during  ten  per  cent  to  twelve  per  cent 


62  THE    DIESEL    ENGINE    IN    PRACTICE 

of  the  combustion  stroke  results  in  a  more  uniform 
stress  and  longer  life. 

Two  225  h.p.  Diesel  engines  in  a  Texas  power 
house  during  the  nine  years  since  they  were  installed, 
have  operated  on  an  average  eighteen  hours  per  day. 
Their  cylinders  were  rebored  after  nine  years'  service. 
With  the  same  handling  in  the  future  as  they  have  had 
in  the  past,  they  should  outlive  a  steam  plant  of  like 
capacity. 

With  late  designs,  the  wear  and  tear  on  the  oper- 
ating parts  will  be  much  less  than  in  the  older  design. 
In  the  first  engines,  the  cylinders  were  solid,  so  that 
in  five  or  six  years,  as  they  became  worn,  it  was  neces- 
sary to  bore  them  out  and  purchase  new  pistons.  In 
the  later  designs  the  cylinders  are  fitted  with  a  liner  so 
that  they  may  be  replaced  by  merely  lifting  them 
out  and  slipping  new  ones  in  their  place.  These  liners 
are  made  of  cast  iron  and  require  only  a  small  amount 
of  machine  work,  so  naturally  are  not  expensive — sim- 
ply a  case  of  cast  iron  at  so  much  a  pound.  With  this 
system,  new  pistons  are  not  required,  as  the  piston  of 
a  Diesel  engine  never  wears,  simply  the  rings  and  the 
cylinder  walls. 

Reliability. 

The  reliability  of  the  Diesel  engine  has  been 
doubted  for  many  years,  not  from  the  performance  of 
the  engine  itself  but  from  false  reports.  However, 
judging  from  the  experience  of  the  numerous  plants 
that  have  been  in  continuous  operation,  they  have 
proven  very  successful. 

The  water  pumping  station  at  Sherman,  Texas, 
owned  by  the  city,  is  a  fair  example.  This  is  an  instal- 
lation of  two  170  h.p.  engines  which  for  the  past  four 


DIESEL'S    LIFE    AND    RELIABILITY  63 

years  have  been  operating  continuously  24  hours  a  day 
on  30  day  runs.  At  the  end  of  this  time  the  engines 
are  shut  down,  inspected  and  adjustments  made  if 
they  are  required. 

There  are  any  number  of  plants  that  have  but  one 
engine  used  for  city  lighting  service  and  in  manufac- 
turing industries.  If  the  engines  in  either  case  are 
operated  on  24  hour  schedule  they  arrange  to  shut 
down  for  a  few  hours  on  Sunday  for  inspection. 

The  City  of  Donaldsonville,  Louisiana,  purchased 
two  170  h.p.  Diesels  in  about  1912.  These  engines 
furnished  the  light  and  the  power  for  the  city  water 
works  system.  While  a  great  many  cities  in  the 
south  have  a  standpipe  in  connection  with  their  water 
service,  Donaldsonville  pumps  directly  into  their  lines, 
the  pumps  being  driven  with  motors  operated  auto- 
matically to  hold  50  lb.  pressure  on  the  system.  The 
reliability  of  the  Diesel  engines  in  this  plant  was 
highly  endorsed  by  the  Fire  Underv/riters  and  the 
plant  shows  a  wonderful  saving  over  their  old  steam 
plant.  The  steam  plant  used  32  barrels  of  oil  in  24 
hours  or  90  barrels  of  coal,  while  the  Diesel  plant,  with 
practically  the  same  load,  uses  3^  barrels  of  oil  per 
24  hours,  a  saving  of  between  $1000  and  $1100  a  month 
in  fuel  for  the  city. 

The  Texas  &  Pacific  Railroad  Company  operate 
two  of  their  railroad  shops  with  Diesel  engines,  one  at 
Marshall,  Texas,  the  other  at  Big  Springs,  Texas.  The 
Marshall  engine  has  been  operating  a  number  of  years, 
and  judging  from  reports  received  from  their  mechan- 
ical engineer,  this  engine  is  giving  perfect  satisfaction, 
not  only  in  the  extreme  economy  of  operatioii,  but  won- 
derful economy  in  upkeep.  They  state  that  their  engine 


64  THE    DIESEL    ENGINE    IN    PRACTICE 

consumes  8  gallons  of  fuel  per  hour  with  an  output  of 
90  kw.,  also  that  the  average  upkeep  of  the  engine 
for  the  past  three  years  has  not  been  more  than  $2 
a  month — their  engineer  knows  his  business!  The 
engine  in  the  shops  at  Big  Springs  has  been  operating 
over  two  years  with  perfect  success  and  little  upkeep. 

Another  marvelous  exam.ple  of  the  reliability  of 
the  Diesel  engine,  both  for  endurance  and  upkeep,  is 
at  Plant  City,  Florida.  This  engine  furnishes  the  lights 
for  the  city,  in  connection  with  furnishing  power  for 
manufacturing  ice.  The  engine  is  120  h.p.  and  was 
operated  almost  continuously  for  three  years  before 
any  repairs  were  made.  When  the  engine  was  over- 
hauled the  writer  was  there  to  note  its  condition  and 
found  out  of  eighteen  rings,  only  two  piston  rings 
broken  on  the  three  pistons.  None  were  stuck,  and 
the  cylinders  were  in  perfect  condition,  as  smooth  as 
a  looking  glass.  When  the  reliability  for  continuous 
operation  is  questioned  it  is  safe  to  state  that  the 
Diesel  engine  is  fully  as  dependable,  if  not  more  so, 
than  the  steam  plant,  when  upkeep  of  boilers,  pumps 
and  auxiliaries  is  considered. 

The  City  of  Lyndon,  Kansas,  was  operating  a 
modern  steam  engine,  in  excellent  condition,  in  fact 
when  it  was  sold  second  hand  it  brought  nearly  full 
price.  While  operating  the  steam  engine  they  only 
ran  from  dusk  to  dawn.  Their  average  oil  consump- 
tion was  1  bbl.  of  oil  per  hour;  if  they  ran  10  hours 
it  was  10  bbl.;  if  13  hours  13  bbl.,  etc.  The  city 
installed  a  120  h.p.  Diesel  engine  three  years  ago, 
turned  around  the  generator  which  had  been  belted 
to  the  steam  engine  and  belted  it  to  the  Diesel.  The 
load  has  been  increased  by  extra  street  lamps  and  new 


DIESEL'S    LIFE    AND    RELIABILITY  65 

users,  both  residence  and  stores,  but  even  with  the 
increase  of  output  the  Diesel  engine  does  not  average 
a  barrel  of  oil  per  night,  figuring  365  days  a  yeai . 
Naturally  they  are  highly  pleased  and  are  now  con- 
sidering the  purchase  of  another  Diesel  and  furnishing 
lights  and  power  for  small  surrounding  towns. 

The  longest  run  the  writer  can  recall  was  94  days 
continuous  operation  in  Jerome,  Arizona.  The  plant 
consisted  of  two  225  h.p.  Diesel  engines  connected 
to  a  Roots  blower  with  rope  drive,  ventilating  a  mine. 
This  we  consider  "going  some"  for  combustion  en- 
gines, and  they  were  operated  on  California  fuel  oil 
containing  25  per  cent  asphaltum. 

Another  Diesel  plant  at  Coeymans,  N.  Y.,  fur- 
nishes the  light  and  power  for  three  towns,  namely, 
Coeymans,  Ravina  and  New  Baltimore.  It  has  been 
in  operation  for  the  past  seven  years  and  the  owner 
stated  on  several  occasions,  when  asked  what  he 
thought  of  Diesel  engines,  that  if  he  had  his  choice 
of  being  presented  with  the  best  reciprocating  steam 
plant  that  could  be  furnished,  and  he  had  to  buy  the 
fiiel  to  run  it,  he  would  much  rather  pay  the  price  for 
Diesel  engines.  This  plant,  without  a  doubt,  is  the 
cleanest  and  best  kept  Diesel  plant  in  the  United 
States.  The  first  two  engines  installed  were  120  h.p. 
Since  that  time  they  have  purchased  two  more,  one 
120  h.p.  and  one  225  h.p.,  all  direct  connected  to  a.c. 
generators  operating  in  parallel.  These  are  simply 
instances  of  typical  Diesel  plants  of  which  there  are 
now  over  400  in  operation  in  this  country. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

MODERN  ENGINES 

In  present  day  design,  Diesel  engines  are  divided 
into  two  classes,  the  vertical  and  horizontal.  Each 
of  these  types  has  their  advocates.  In  Europe  there 
has  been  a  general  adherence  to  vertical  engines  and  at 
present  the  greater  number  of  American  builders  are 
following  lead.  In  the  vertical  engine  some  manufac- 
turers are  using  the  open  "A"  frame  construction 
while  others  have  adopted  the  closed  box-frame  crank 
case.  The  advantages  of  these  types,  as  claimed  by 
the  manufacturers,  are  accessibility  of  the  "A"  frame 
and  cheapness  of  construction  as  against  the  more  ex- 
pensive and  more  rigid  construction  of  the  box  type 
crank  case.  The  matter  of  cleanliness  and  absence  of 
vapors  being  blown  from  the  crank  case  is  also  an  argu- 
ment advanced  by  the  latter.  Steam  engineers  in  gen- 
eral are  advocates  of  the  "A"  frame  construction,  and 
this  type  has  been  operated  in  America  with  entire 
success.  On  the  other  hand  the  operation  of  the  en- 
closed crank  case  has  also  many  advocates  and  has 
been  proven  by  long  experience.  It  has  been  adopted 
by  the  largest  European  builders  and  is  preferred  there, 
particularly  for  high  speed  engines.  This  type  of  con- 
struction, however,  cannot  be  carried  into  extremely 
large  sizes  as  the  capacity  of  freight  cars  is  limited, 
both  as  to  the  size  and  the  weight  of  the  casting  which 


MODERN    ENGINES 


67 


Fig. 


Section  of  Mcintosh  &  Seymour  Oil  Engine. 


can  be  transported.  It  is  usual  with  builders  of  "A" 
frame  engines  to  enclose  the  working  parts  with  some 
type  of  guards  of  sheet  steel  with  small  removable 
doors  for  observation. 

The  Mcintosh  &  Seymour  engine  is  designed  with 
**A"  frame  as  shown  in  section  in  Fig.  11.  The  main 
bearings  are  lubricated  by  chain  oilers.    The  cylinders 


68 


THE    DIESEL    ENGINE    IN    PRACTICE 


are  lubricated  at  two  different  points,  one  in  the  front 
and  one  in  the  back,  from  a  mechanically  driven  sight 
feed  pump.  The  piston  pin  is  provided  with  a  separate 
lubricating  pipe  from  the  mechanical  lubricator,  which 
delivers  its  oil  to  a  "V"  shaped  vertical  groove  in  the 


Fig.   12.     Mcintosh   &   Seymour   Atomizer. 


piston;  from  this  groove  the  oil  is  forced  through  a 
hole  in  the  center  of  the  wrist  pin,  whence  it  is  lead  to 
the  bearings.  The  crank  pins  are  lubricated  by  cen- 
trifugal oilers. 

The  atomizer  is  that  invented  by  K.  H.  E.  Hes- 
selmann  of  the  Aktiebolaget  Diesels  Motorer,   (Swe- 


MODERN    ENGINES  69 

dish  Diesel  Engine  Co.)  shown  in  Fig.  12.  Its  essen- 
tial feature  is  that  instead  of  pulverizing  the  oil  by 
crowding  it  down  through  perforated  plates  it  draws 
it  by  the  injector  principle  into  the  current  of  ingoing 
injection  air,  which  atomizes  and  absorbs  it  as  fast  as 
it  is  drawn  up.  The  charge  of  oil  is  deposited  in  a 
chamber,  which  it  does  not  fill,  even  at  an  overload. 
Air  is  admitted  to  the  chamber  A-A  and  passes 
through  the  ports  B-B,  while  it  has  also  access  to  the 
oil  chamber  through  the  space  E-E.  When  the  fuel 
valve  opens,  the  air,  rushing  through  the  port,  passes 
through  the  expanding  passage  F-F,  between  the  valve 
stem  and  the  receding  wall  of  the  surrounding  fitting, 
induces  by  injector  action  a  difference  of  pressure 
which  causes  the  oil  to  flow  to  the  space,  into  which 
the  oil,  having  been  elevated  and  broken  up  through 
slotted  plates  K  and  L  is  drawn  and  picked  up  by 
the  ingoing  air.  The  form  of  the  fuel  plate  has  an  im- 
portant effect  upon  the  efficiency  of  the  atomizer. 

The  engine  is  started  from  a  single  cylinder.  No 
attempt  is  made  to  relieve  compression  in  starting  as 
this  is  claimed  to  be  unnecessary  in  engines  below 
500  h.p.  Means  are  provided,  however,  for  holding 
the  exhaust  valve  open  during  the  turning  or  barring 
of  the  engine  by  hand,  preparatory  to  starting. 

The  cam  shaft  is  located  on  the  level  of  the  heads, 
the  cams  not  being  housed.  They  are  driven  by  a  ver- 
tical shaft  and  screw  gears.  The  rocket  arms  on  these 
engines  are  practically  alike,  the  rocker  arm  shaft 
being  supported  by  steel  pedestals  fastened  to  the  cyl- 
inder heads. 

The  variation  of  the  quantity  of  oil  pumped  by 
the    fuel   oil    pump    is    accomplished    by   varying   the 


70  THE    DIESEL    ENGINE    IN    PRACTICE 

Stroke  of  the  pump  plunger  eccentric  operated  off  the 
vertical  shaft. 

The  Mclntosh-Seymour  Corporation  are  also 
bringing  out  an  inclosed  crank  case  engine  in  sizes 
ranging  from  60  h.p.  in  one  cylinder  to  1000  h.p.  in 
six  cylinders  and  have  constructed  several  machines 
of  this  type.  These  ratings  are  claimed  to  be  exceed- 
ingly conservative  and  the  engine  permits  of  an  over- 
load of  20  per  cent.  The  speeds  are  suitable  for  direct 
connection  to  60  or  25  cycle  alternating  current  gen- 
erators. 

The  Lyons  Atlas  engine  as  built  by  the  Lyons 
Atlas  Engine  Co.  of  Indianapolis,  is  unique,  being 
truly  of  American  design.  It  is  not  connected  in  any- 
way with  any  European  concern.  The  engine  is  of  the 
"A"  frame  type,  designed  by  Mr.  Norman  McCarthy. 
It  is  of  the  vertical,  single-acting,  enclosed  type,  with 
automatic  lubrication,  ample  protection  being  supplied 
to  the  working  parts  by  sheet  steel  covers.  The  base 
contains  the  housings  for  the  main  shaft  bearings 
and  also  forms  a  reservoir  for  lubricating  oil.  The  "A" 
frame  for  each  crank  is  cast  in  one  piece  with  the  cyl- 
inder. It  fits  on  the  base,  completely  covering  the 
crank  pit.  The  main  bearings  are  in  halves,  split  hor- 
izontally. Each  bearing  is  fitted  with  two  ring  oilers, 
the  reservoir  box  being  filled  with  splash  in  the  crank 
case.  The  main  shaft  is  a  solid  forging  of  open  hearth 
steel,  the  cranks  being  fitted  with  counter-weights 
to  absorb  vibration.  The  connecting  rods  have  solid 
upper  ends,  the  lower  boxes  are  babbitted.  The  upper 
or  wrist  pin  boxes  are  of  phosphor  bronze  backed  by 
a  steel  wedge.  Adjustments  can  be  conveniently  made 
from  the  outside  through  side  openings.    The  cylinder 


MODERN    ENGINES  71 

is  provided  with  a  liner  cast  separate  from  the  cylin- 
der proper.  The  heads  are  of  close  grained  cast  iron 
and  are  water  jacketed,  and  can  be  removed  without 
disturbing  the  valves.  The  pistons  are  of  the  long 
trunk  type  fitted  with  seven  compression  rings,  no 
wiper  ring  being  provided.  A  hardened  steel  wrist 
pin  is  ground  to  a  perfect  surface  and  firmly  secured 
in  the  piston.  The  valves  are  in  cages  to  permit  of 
ready  removal  for  regrinding.  The  splash  system  as 
well  as  the  forced  lubrication  system  is  used  by  this 
company  for  lubrication. 

The  fuel  injection  pump  is  of  the  two-stage  type, 
the  first  stage  being  directly  controlled  by  the  gov- 
ernor and  serving  to  measure  at  the  last  instant  before 
the  beginning  of  each  working  stroke  the  exact  quan- 
tity of  oil  that  is  to  be  admitted.  This  governing  stage 
operates  against  pressure  not  in  excess  of  atmosphere 
and  is  sufficiently  sensitive  in  action  to  perform  its 
important  functions  with  the  necessary  quickness  and 
accuracy. 

The  Lyons  Atlas  Company  have  built  a  600  h.p. 
engine  in  four  cylinders,  this  being  the  largest  Diesel 
engine  yet  constructed  in  America.  Two  engines  of 
this  size  were  shipped  to  China  and  one  of  this  size  is 
in  operation  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands.  These  engines 
have  cylinders  21  in.  by  30  in.  stroke,  developing  150 
h.  p.  when  operating  at  164  r.p.m. 

The  Fulton-Tosi  engine  built  by  the  Fulton  Iron 
Works  of  St.  Louis,  is  similar  in  most  respects  to  the 
other  A  frame  engines.  The  cam-shaft  is  on  the  front 
of  the  engine  at  the  level  of  the  cylinder  heads.  It  is 
encased  in  a  cast-iron  housing  for  the  full  length  of 
the  shaft  and  the  cams  and  gears  operate  in  oil.     The 


72 


THE    DIESEL    ENGINE    IN    PRACTICE 


cam  shaft  is  driven  from  a  vertical  shaft  which  also 
drives  the  governor  and  the  fuel  oil  pump,  bronze 
and  steel  spiral  gears  being  provided. 

The  rocker  arm  slips  off  the  end  of  the  support- 
ing rod  without  disturbing  any  other  parts  of  the  arm 
or  head. 

Variation  in  the  quantity  of  oil  delivered  by  the 
fuel  oil  pump  is  accomplished  by  maintaining  a  con- 
stant stroke  of  the  pump  plunger  with  a  constant  pump 
cylinder  volume  during  the  suction  stroke  and  varying 
the  pump  cylinder  volume  during  the  delivery  stroke. 
This  is  shown  in  Fig.  13.  The  method  is  in  general 
use  in  America. 


vi^^^Jf 


-L  f<tee/vT»ic  Roa 


J 


Fig-. 


Fulton    Tosi    Fuel    Oil    Pump. 


Busch-Sulzer  Bros,  adhere  strictly  to  the  box  type 
of  construction  up  to  500  h.p.  The  engines  (shown 
in  section  in  Fig.  14)  are  of  the  box  frame  type  with 
all  parts  under  force  feed  lubrication — the  cylinders, 
main  bearings,  cranks  and  wrist  pins.  The  cylinders 
are  lubricated  at  six  different  points  by  a  sight  feed 
mechanical  lubricator.  The  main  bearings,  crank  pins 
and  wrist  pins  are  lubricated  with  a  positive  displace- 


MODERN    ENGINES 


73 


Fig.  14.     Section  of  Busch-Sulzer  Bros.-Diesel  Engine. 


ment  rotary  pump  located  in  the  crank  case  and 
driven  by  gears  from  the  main  shaft.  It  takes  its  oil 
from  a  filter  and  cooler  below  the  floor  line  at 
the  end  of  the  engine.  The  crank  shaft  (see  Fig.  15) 
and  connecting  rods  are  provided  with  a  ^  in.  hole 
extending  from  the  main  bearing  through  the  web  to 
the  center  of  the  crank,  the  same  sized  hole  extending 


74 


THE    DIESEL    ENGINE    IN    PRACTICE 


through  the  entire  length  of  all  connecting  rods  both 
for  working  cylinders  and  compressor.  Fifteen  pound 
pressure  is  maintained  on  the  lubricating  oil  by  the 
rotary  pump  and  a  gauge  in  plain  sight  of  the  oper- 
ator indicates  the  pressure. 


f ffSi'y  yyw  ^i»«'  i^Mf , , 


.-z  •''•> 


Fig.  15.     Lubriicating  System  of  Busch-Sulzer  Bros. 
Engine. 

The  atomizer  is  that  employed  by  Sulzer,  and, 
in  type  at  least,  by  most  of  the  Diesel  licensees,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  16.  The  charge  of  oil  for  the  coming 
stroke  is  delivered  to  the  chamber,  which  is  continu- 
ously in  connection  with  the  bottle  containing  the 
high-pressure  injection  air.  At  the  bottom  of  this 
chamber  are  disks  with  perforations  which  do  not 
register,  so  that  when  the  fuel  valve  opens,  the  oil 
coming  through  one  of  the  perforations  of  the  top 
plate  is  driven  against  the  solid  portion  of  the  next 


MODERN    ENGINES 


75 


Fig. 


Sulzer  Atomizer. 


plate  with  a  velocity  induced  by  a  difference  of  pres- 
sure of  some  400  lb.  at  a  maximum  and  it  is  broken 
up  into  a  spray,  in  which  form  it  is  swept  through  the 
successive  places,  becoming  finally  atomized.  The 
truncated  cone  below  these  disks  is  grooved  on  its 
outer  surface,  and  the  oil-laden  air  passes  through 
these  grooves  and  is  directed  against  the  edges  of  the 
opening  in  the  nozzle  plate  in  such  a  manner  that  its 
stream  upon  entry  into  the  combustion  chamber  is 
spread  into  a  saucer-shaper,  umbrella  like  flame  all 
over  the  surface  of  the  piston.  These  engines  are 
equipped  with  removable  cylinder  liners. 


76 


THE    DIESEL    ENGINE    IN    PRACTICE 


The  engine  is  started  from  two  center  cylinders 
and  is  furnished  with  a  mechanical  device  for  simul- 
taneously releasing  compression  on  all  cylinders  by 
means  of  an  additional  cam  which  opens  the  exhaust 
valve  on  the  compression  stroke. 


ecct/^r/tK^OD 


fCCfAfT/f/cPoa 


*■  STPone 
3  C 

Busch-Sulzer   Fuel   Pump. 


There  are  six  compression  rings  and  one  wiper 
ring.  This  latter  is  a  knife  edge  ring  which  is  very 
efficient  and  effects  a  great  saving  in  lubricating  oil. 

The  cam  shaft  of  the  Busch-Sulzer  engine  is  on  the 
front  of  the  engine  at  the  level  of  the  cylinder  heads. 
It  is  encased  in  a  cast  iron  housing  the  full  length 
of  the  shaft  and  the  cams  and  gears  operate  in  oil. 
The  cam  shaft  is  driven  from  a  vertical  shaft  which 


MODERN    ENGINES  77 

also  drives  the  governor  and  fuel  oil  pump.  Bronze 
and  steel  spiral  gears  are  provided  to  drive  the  vertical 
shaft  and  the  cam  shaft.  The  rocker  arm  is  in  two 
parts  and  is  claimed  to  permit  of  easy  removal  of  the 
valve  cages,  particularly  the  exhaust  valve. 

The  fuel  pump  is  similar  to  that  in  general  use 
in  Europe  and  operates  by  what  is  known  as  the 
"by-pass"  method.  This  by-passing  is  accomplished 
by  holding  open  the  suction  valve  of  the  pump  during 
a  portion  of  the  delivery  stroke.  Both  the  plunger  and 
the  push  rod  have  constant  strokes  but  the  action  of 
the  bell  crank  operated  by  the  push  rods  is  varied 
by  its  eccentric  mounting,  which  is  rotated  under  gov- 
ernor control ;  so  that  the  suction  valve  of  the  pump  is 
held  open  during  the  longer  or  shorter  portion  of  the 
delivery  stroke  of  the  plunger.  This  is  illustrated  by 
Fig.  17. 

Diagram  "A"  shows  the  parts  in  no  load  position, 
the  suction  valve  being  held  open  almost  throughout 
the  entire  delivery  stroke.  "B"  and  "C"  respectively 
show  the  parts  in  half  and  full  load  positions. 

The  Allis-Chalmers  Manufacturing  Company  of 
Milwaukee  are  manufacturing  a  horizontal  oil  engine, 
shown  in  Fig.  18.  This  engine  is  designed  under  the 
Lietzenmayer  patents,  using  the  open  type  of  fuel  noz- 
zle of  that  name.  In  this  type  of  nozzle,  shown  in 
Fig.  19,  the  fuel  is  delivered  by  the  pump  into  a 
passage  which  through  a  nozzle  is  at  all  times  in  open 
communication  with  the  cylinder.  The  compressed  in- 
jection air  is  closed  off  from  the  passage  by  the  injec- 
tion valve.  When  this  valve  is  lifted  from  its  seat 
the  stream  of  air  scours  over  the  surface  of  the  accum- 
ulated fuel  and  atomizes  it  w^ith  an  action  similar  to 


78 


THE    DIESEL    ENGINE    IN    PRACTICE 


Fig.    18.     Section    of    Allis-Chalmers    Engine. 


that  of  a  file  upon  a  metal  surface.  The  final  atomiz- 
ing and  spreading  is  performed  in  the  passage  through 
the  nozzle  as  in  the  case  of  the  Diesel  atomizer.  The 
multi-stage  air  compressor  is  mounted  on  the  side  of  the 
frame  and  actuated  from  the  crank  shaft.  Air  is  deliv- 
ered directly  to  the  fuel  nozzle  without  the  use  of  the 
usual  storage  tank.  The  regulation  is  performed  by 
varying  the  eflfective  stroke  of  the  fuel  pump  plunger 
under  governor  control.  A  gravity  oiling  system  with 
filtering  arrangement  and  pump  is  used  for  all  import- 
ant bearings.  The  lubrication  of  the  cylinders,  and  in 
special  cases  that  of  the  exhaust  valve  stems  is  per- 
formed by  a  forced  feed  oil  pump.  The  size  of  the 
115  h.p.  cylinder  operating  at  200  r.p.m  is  18  in.  in 
diameter,  27  in.  stroke.  The  weight  of  a  230  h.p.  en- 
gine of  two  cylinders  of  the  above  size  is  160,000 
lb.,  including  a  17,000  lb.  fly  wheel. 


MODERN    ENGINES 


79 


/Ufl 


Fig.    19.     Liietzenmayer   Fuel   Nozzle. 


The  Snow  oil  engine  built  by  the  Snow  Steam 
Pump  Works  of  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  (Fig.  20)  is  a  four- 
stroke-cycle  engine,  although  this  company  manufac- 


Fiff.  20.     Sectional  View  of  Snow  Engine. 


tures  engines  both  of  the  two-stroke-cycle  and  four- 
stroke-cycle.  These  engines  are  provided  with  cross- 
heads.    An  .air  compressor  is  mounted  on  a  pad  on  the 


80 


THE    DIESEL    ENGINE    IN    PRACTICE 


side  of  frame  and  is  driven  by  a  drag  crank  on  the 
end  of  the  shaft.  The  cylinder  head,  particularly  in 
the  two-cycle  type,  is,  of  course,  free  from  valves  and 
naturally  simple  in  its  construction.  The  lubrication 
of  the  cylinder  is  effected  by  a  Richardson  positive 
force  feed  pump.     These  engines  employ  a  modified 


Fig-.   21.     Section  of  W^illans-Robinson  Cylinder  Head. 


type  of  open  nozzle  and  the  regulation  is  accomplished 
by  varying  the  stroke  of  the  fuel  pump  plunger  by 
means  of  a  sliding  w^edge  operated  by  the  governor. 
The  piston  head  in  many  of  the  engines  manufactured 
by  this  company  is  removable,  being  bolted  on  to  the 
piston  proper.  In  this  way  the  portion  of  the  piston 
which  is  subject  to  the  greatest  heat  is  easily  remov- 
able and  renewable. 

The  Dow  Willans  Diesel  type  oil  engine  is  built 
by  the  Dow  Pump  and  Diesel  Engine  Company,  Ala- 
meda, California,  under  the  license  of  Willans-Robin- 


MODERN    ENGINES 


81 


son  of  Rugby,  England.  It  naturally  follows  very 
closely  the  design  of  the  engine  built  in  England, 
which  is  of  the  "A"  frame  type  with  centrifugal  oilers 
on  the  crank  pins  and  mechanical  lubrication  of  the 
pistons  pin,  the  lubrication  of  the  cylinders  also  being 
under  control  of  a  mechanically  operated  lubricating 


Fig-.   22.     Willans    Compressor. 


pump.  The  main  bearings  are  ring  oiled.  This  engine 
is  built  in  50  h.p.  per  cylinder,  any  number  of  units 
being  combined  to  make  engines  of  from  150  to  450  h.p. 
The  cam  shaft  is  open  type,  the  valves  in  the  head  of 
the  engine  being  contained  in  cages  shown  in  section  of 
Fig.  21.)  The  compressed  air  for  both  starting  and 
atomizing  is  delivered  by  a  Reavell  air  compressor 
directly  coupled  in  the  end  of  the  crank  shaft.    This 


82  THE    DIESEL    ENGINE    IN    PRACTICE 

air  compressor  is  of  a  type  built  in  England  and  has 
the  four  cylinders  set  two  vertically  and  two  horizon- 
tally opposite  each  other.  It  is  of  the  three-stage  type 
with  two  cylinders  for  the  first  stage.  A  cut  of  this 
compressor  is  shown  in  Fig.  22. 

The  Nordberg  Manufacturing  Company  of  Mil- 
waukee, Wis.,  are  to  manufacture  a  Diesel  engine  un- 
der license  from  Carels  Brothers  of  Belgium.  There 
are  at  present  installed  in  New  Mexico  two  engines 
manufactured  in  Belgium.  These  are  of  1250  b.h.p.  in 
five  cylinders  and  are  direct  connected  to  electric  gen- 
erators. These  are  the  largest  Diesel  engines  at  pres- 
ent in  operation  in  this  country  and  the  report  of  the 
purchaser  is  entirely  satisfactory.  The  Nordberg 
Company  is  at  present  manufacturing  a  duplicate  of 
the  two  engines  installed  under  the  Carels'  license. 

Air  Compressor. 

.  A  typical  type  of  air  compressor,  see  Fig.  14,  is  of 
the  three-stage  type,  pyramid  piston,  capable  of  com- 
pressing to  1200  lb.  per'  sq.  in.  This  compressor  is 
often  integral  with  the  engine  and  driven  directly  from 
the  main  shaft.  To  avoid  lubricating  difficulties  and 
the  danger  of  explosion  of  lubricating  oil  gases  as  well 
as  to  reduce  the  dimensions  and  power  consumed  in 
the  compressor,  it  is  thoroughly  water  cooled,  being 
provided  with  ample  inter-  and  after-coolers.  The 
compressor  is  provided  with  automatic  valves  of  very 
limited  lift,  closed  by  springs,  the  valves  being  set  in 
cages  which  can  be  readily  removed  for  regrinding, 
and  the  compressor  delivers  absolutely  cold  air  at  1000 
lb.  pressure. 

Another  type  of  compressor  is  a  two-stage  directly 
coupled  to  the  engine,  the  compressor,  of  course,  being 


MODERN    ENGINES  83 

thoroughly  water-cooled  and  will  deliver  air  at  from 
1000  to  1200  lb.  per  sq.  in.  All  the  Diesel  engines 
made  in  America  at  the  present  time  supply  some  type 
of  directly  driven  compressor.  Some  manufacturers 
are  directly  connecting  a  separate  air  compressor  by 
means  of  a  coupling. 

The  bearings  in  the  vertical  Diesel  engines  are 
rigid,  with  ample  surface  provided  for  sufficient  lubri- 
cation so  that  the  wear  on  them  is  negligible.  The  ad- 
vantage of  this  rigid  construction  is  obvious  in  the 
case  of  multi-cylinder  engines  in  which  there  are  a 
number  of  bearings  in  line;  it  is  difficult  to  adjust  such 
bearings  without  removing  the  shaft.  The  lower  shells 
of  the  rigid  bearings  are  made  in  a  complete  circle 
so  that  they  can  be  turned  out  in  case  of  accident  by 
taking  oflf  the  cap  and  turning  the  engine  over,  bring- 
ing the  shell  on  top  of  the  shaft  and  this  can  be  accom- 
plished without  lifting  the  shaft.  The  bearing  could 
be  then  rebabbitted,  the  bearings  scraped  in  with  the 
mandrel  made  the  size  of  the  shaft  and  replaced  the 
same  way  it  was  turned  out.  It  is  necessary  in  this  type 
of  bearing  to  scrape  the  cast  iron  in  which  the  bear- 
ing shell  rests  to  a  perfect  fit  to  the  shell,  which  re- 
quires great  care  and  patience. 

The  shaft  in  four-stroke-cycle  engines  are  prac- 
tically alike ;  the  cranks  are  set  at  180  degrees,  the  two 
centers  against  the  two  ends ;  the  firing  of  the  cylinders 
is  usually  No.  1,  2,  4,  3,  No.  1  being  toward  the  fly 
wheel.  The  shafts  are  usually  an  American  product, 
although  some  companies  were  depending  on  shafts 
shipped  from  abroad.  The  extension  shaft  of  some  en- 
gines is  provided  with  one  outboard  bearing,  the 
coupling  being  inside  the  crank  case.     Other  engines 


84  THE    DIESEL    ENGINE    IN    PRACTICE 

are  provided  with  two  outer  bearings,  one  each  side  of 
the  generator  with  a  coupling  between  the  inside  bear- 
ing and  engine.  The  former,  with  the  one  outboard 
bearing,  however,  has  a  bearing  of  extra  dimension  in- 
side the  engine  to  support  the  additional  weight  of  the 
extension  shaft,  fly  wheel  and  generator,  in  the  case  of  ^ 
direct  connected  electrical  equipment.  With  this  ar- 
rangement there  is  less  floor  room  occupied  but  the 
two  outer  bearings  prevent  a  strain  on  the  rigid  cou- 
pling between  the  extension  shaft  and  the  crank  shaft. 
The  fly  wheel  on  the  Busch-Sulzer  engine  is  split  on 
the  arms,  which  gives  additional  strength  against 
bursting  over  a  fly  wheel  split  between  the  arms,  which 
is,  however,  the  usual  practice  and  the  one  followed 
by  many  manufacturers  with  good  success.  The  weight 
of  the  fly  wheel  is  varied  to  suit  the  service  performed 
by  the  engine,  the  heaviest  fly  wheel  being  provided 
with  engines  driving  alternating  current  generators. 
It  is  often  the  case  where  an  engine  is  belted  to  design 
a  flywheel  that  will  also  be  a  band  wheel  and  in  this 
way  the  space  occupied  is  greatly  reduced  and  the 
expense  also  lessened. 

All  Diesel  engines  are  provided  v/ith  a  thorough 
water  cooling  system,  taking  care  of  the  parts  of  en- 
gine which  need  cooling,  such  as  the  cylinders,  heads, 
exhaust  valve  stems,  air  compressor  and  in  some  cases 
the  exhaust  piping.  Salt  water  can  be  readily  used  for 
this  purpose ;  the  average  cooling  water  consumption 
is  approximately  four  to  six  gallons  per  horsepower 
hour. 

The  connecting  rods  of  practically  all  Diesel  en- 
gines are  of  forged  steel.  The  bearings  at  the  crank 
end  are  of  the  marine  type,  cast  steel  and  babbitt  lined. 


MODERN    ENGINES  85 

bolted  to  the  tee-shaped  end  of  the  rod.  The  upper 
end  of  the  rod  is  usually  closed  and  contains  the  bear- 
ing of  the  wrist  pin.  In  the  larger  sizes  the  wrist 
pin  bearing  boxes  are  steel  castings  babbitted;  in  the 
smaller,  solid  bronze.  Some  manufacturers  provide 
upper  end  bearings  with  wrist  pin  bolts. 

The  governor  in  practically  all  types  of  Diesel 
engines  is  of  the  inertia  type  controlling  the  fuel  oil 
pump  by  a  series  of  levers.  It  is  customary  to  operate 
the  governor  from  the  vertical  shaft,  which  in  turn 
drives  the  cam  shaft.  Certain  manufacturers  provide 
an  additional  safety  device  which  operates  in  case  of 
overspeed.  This,  however,  is  not  supplied  on  moderate 
sized  units. 


CHAPTER  IX 
SEMI-DIESELS 

In  the  so-called  semi-Diesel  the  entire  cylinder 
volume  of  pure  air  is  compressed  to  from  150  to  300 
lb.  per  sq.  in.,  depending  upon  the  type  of  engine.  A 
small  portion  of  this  air  being  contained  in  an  aux- 
iliary chamber  which  is  in  open  communication  with 
the  interior  of  the  cylinder  and  which  has  been  heated 
to  a  high  temperature,  resulting  from  the  mechanical 
compression,  is  therefore,  considerably  hotter  in  this 
chamber  than  in  the  main  portion  of  the  cylinder.  The 
fuel  is  introduced,  at  or  about  the  completion  of  this 
compression,  either  directly  and  entirely  into  this 
auxiliary  chamber,  or  through  the  chamber  and  par- 
tially into  the  cylinder  and  gasified  and  ignited  by 
the  heat  of  compression  of  the  air  in  the  chamber, 
the  combustion  taking  place  more  suddenly  and  with 
a  greater  increase  in  pressure  than  in  the  Diesel,  and 
being  followed  by  a  more  rapid  drop. 

In  both  this  type  of  engine  and  the  Diesel  type 
the  maximum  pressure  is  approximately  the  same, 
though  the  compression  pressure  in  the  semi-Diesel 
type  is  considerably  lower.  Fig.  23  shows  typical 
diagrams  of  a  semj-Diesel  engine.  The  fuel  con- 
sumption of  this  type  of  engine  is  slightly  greater 
than  that  guaranteed  by  the  Diesel  engine,  the  full 
load   compression   being  guaranteed   in   engines   from 


SEMI-DIESELS 


87 


the  size  300  h.p.  at  .5  lb.  of  fuel  oil  at  full  load,  .65  lb. 
at  %  load  and  .75  lb.  at  half  load.  It  will  be  noted  that 
although  the  full  load  consumption  corresponds  to  the 
Diesel  engine  that  of  J^  and  ^4  loads  are  consider- 
able higher  than  those  obtained  in  the  true  Diesel 
engine.  These  semi-Diesel  engines  are,  therefore, 
economical  on  steady  loads  at  or  near  their  full  load, 
but  do  not  show  nearly  the  economy  of  the  true  Diesel 


5oo 

5oo    J 

4oo  . 

4-00    . 

3oo  . 

K 

3oo    . 

\ 

Zoo  . 

V 

Zoo   . 

\\ 

loo  _ 

^^ 

loo    . 
-^         o 

^<::^___ 

sr  Lofto 

2*    Z.  OAto  . 

5oo     . 

5oo       . 

4oo 

n. 

4oo     . 

A 

3oo    . 

\ 

3oo     . 

\ 

Zoo  . 

\  \ 

Zoo     . 

y  \ 

loo     . 

V^v..^^^^ 

loo     . 

\^^^^^-^_ 

o 

^ — ^ — 

■ 3 

^   lomo. 

roLL  Lo»o 

Fig.  23,     Typical  Semi-Diesel  Engine  Indicator  Cards. 

on  fluctuating  loads.  The  oil  that  these  engines  will 
use  is  practically  the  same  as  that  used  in  the  true 
Diesel  engine  and  rigid  guarantees  from  responsible 
manufacturers  of  this  type  of  engine  will  completely 
cover  this  point. 

A  cut  of  a  De  La  Vergne  engine  is  shown  in  Fig. 
24.  This  engine  is  horizontal  single-acting  of  the  four- 
stroke-cycle  type.     "A"  representing  the  inlet  valve. 


88  THE    DIESEL    ENGINE    IN    PRACTICE 

"D"  the  combustion  chamber  and  "B"  the  exhaust 
valve.  These  valves  are  all  operated  by  rocker  arms 
driven  from  an  eccentric  shaft.  A  two-stage  air  com- 
pressor is  supplied  to  maintain  air  for  starting  and 
spraying  the  oil.  This  is  driven  by  an  eccentric  on 
the  engine  shaft.  Air  from  the  first  stage  of  the  com- 
pressor, at  150  lb.  is  stored  in  a  tank  and  is  available 
for  starting  the  engine,  this  pressure  being  sufficient. 

1 


Fig-.   24.     Longitudinal  Section  of  De  La  Vergne  Engine. 


The  second  stage  of  the  air  compressor  is  quite  small 
in  capacity  and  handles  only  enough  air  to  spray  the 
oil  from  stroke  to  stroke.  Speed  regulation  is  guar- 
anteed to  be  approximately  2  per  cent.  This  company 
manufacturers  engines  of  from  65  to  200  h.p.  in  single 
cylinders  and  from  130  to  400  h.p.  in  two  cylinders 
and  from  200  to  800  h.p.  in  four  cylinders. 

A   cross   section   of  a   semi-Diesel   engine   manu- 
factured by  The   Bessemer  Gas  Engine  Company  of 


SEMI-DIESELS 


89 


Erie,  Pa.,  is  shown  in  Fig.  25.  This  engine  is  hori- 
zontal, using  a  cross  head  and  is  double-acting  to  the 
extent  that  5  lb.  per  sq.  in.  pressure  is  obtained  on  the 
forward  stroke  of  the  engine,  which  is  used  in  filling  the 
cylinders  with  fresh  air  and  sweeping  out  the  products 
of  combustion  on  the  scavenger  stroke.  This  engine 
operate  on  the  two-stroke-cycle  principle.  The  hot 
bulb  '*D"  is  a  hollow  projection  which  is  all  that  re- 


Fig.  25     Section  of  Bessemer  Semi-Diesel  Engine 


quires  heating  preparatory  to  putting  the  engine  into 
operation.  A  compression  pressure  of  about  180  lb.  per 
sq.  in.  pressure  is  used.  The  water  is  delivered  to  a 
brass  cup  "E"  by  a  pump  under  the  control  of  the 
governor  so  that  the  amount  of  water  injected  varies 
with  the  fuel  used  in  the  same  time,  but  the  hand 
adjustment  enables  the  operator  to  vary  the  volume 
at  any  time,  after  which  it  will  still  remain  propor- 
tional. The  water  flows  down  into  a  screened  trough 
and  is  picked  up  by  the  air  entering  at  "C."  This  is  not 
of  the  crank  case  compression  type  as  the  stuffing  box 
isolates  the  crank  case  from  the  air  pump  end  of  the 


90 


THE    DIESEL    ENGINE    IN    PRACTICE 


cylinder  and  in  this  way  it  is  possible  to  provide  auto- 
matic lubrication  to  all  be.arings.  In  the  larger  size 
of  engine  oil  coolers  are  provided  to  reduce  the  tem- 
perature of  the  lubricating  oil  before  it  is  returned 
to  the  system.     The  cross  head  on  this  engine  elimi- 


Fig.  26.     Metz   &  Weiss   Engine. 


SEMI-DIESELS  91 

nates  any  side  wear  on  the  cylinder.  The  manufac- 
turer guarantees  a  fuel  economy  in  engines  develop- 
ing 100  h.p.  per  cylinder  of  .65  lb.  of  fuel  oil  per  brake 
horsepower  hour. 

The  Mietz  &  Weiss  type  of  semi-Diesel  or  heavy 
oil  engine  employs  steam  which  is  generated  from 
water  heated  in  the  jackets  for  scavenging  the  cylin- 
der. Fig.  26  shows  this  engine  in  section.  The  bulb 
"A"  is  heated  by  a  torch  "B"  before  starting  and  after 
the  engine  is  in  operation  the  torch  is  extinguished 
and  the  temperature  of  the  bulb  kept  by  the  combus- 
tion of  the  fuel  in  regular  working,  which  will  bring 
its  contents  above  the  ignition  point  of  the  fuel  at  a 
comparatively  low  pressure  of  about  100  lb.  per  sq.  in. 
The  fuel  is  injected  at  "C"  in  quantities  measured  by 
the  governor  which  controls  the  stroke  of  the  feed 
pump.  The  incoming  air  enters  the  closed  crank  case 
through  the  port  "H"  when  that  port  is  uncovered  by 
the  piston  on  its  upward  stroke  and  is  compressed 
after  the  piston  closes  the  port  on  the  downward 
stroke  at  about  3  lb.  (gauge),  at  which  pressure  it 
enters  the  cylinder  through  the  port  "E/'  being  de- 
flected upward  by  the  lip  "F"  and  expelling  the  gases 
through  the  exhaust  port  "G."  Vapor  from  the  water 
jackets  is  drawn  in  with  it  through  the  pipe  "K"  and 
the  cock  "J"  allows  enough  jacket  water  to  go  in 
with  it  to  prevent  pre-ignition.  This  company  man- 
ufactures both  horizontal  and  vertical  stationary  en- 
gines and  marine  engines  of  the  reversible  type.  The 
quantity  of  fuel  oil  is  regulated  by  the  governor,  in 
accordance  with  the  load  on  the  engine,  with  a  fuel 
consumption  between  1  lb.  per  h.p.  hr.  in  small  en- 
gines to  .65  lb.  in  large  sizes.    Mechanical  lubrication 


92  THE    DIESEL    ENGINE    IN    PRACTICE 

for    all    the    bearings    and    pins    is    provided.      These 
engines  are  all  stroke-cycle. 

In  the  marine  engine  the  reversing  is  accom- 
plished by  an  air  distributing  rotating  valve  driven 
by  bevel  gears  from  the  engine  shaft.  Air  is  allowed 
to  enter  through  a  two-way  valve  into  one  or  the  other 
side  of  the  distributing  valve,  depending  upon  the 
desired  direction  of  rotation  of  the  engine.  The 
same  handle  that  operates  the  air  also  admits  the  fuel, 
so  that  operating  one  lever  starts,  stops  and  reverses 
the  engine.  The  air  for  starting  is  supplied  by  an  air 
tank  supplied  by  air  directly  from  the  engine  or  by 
a  separately  driven  compressor,  depending  on  the  size 
of  the  installation.  These  engines  are  not  provided 
with  a  flywheel,  being  coupled  directly  to  the  pro- 
peller shaft.  The  engine  ranges  in  price  from  $60 
per  h.p.  in  small  sizes  to  $45  in  larger  units. 


CHAPTER  X 

COMMERCIAL  SITUATION 

The  commercial  situation  of  the  Diesel  Engine  is 
unique,  for  economical  and  reliable  as  the  engine  is 
it  will  not  answer,  economically,  for  all  possible  needs. 
The  matter  of  first  cost  and  interest  on  this  fixed 
charge,  together  with  the  retirement  of  the  principal 
by  depreciation  or  placing  a  certain  sum  aside  to  re- 
tire the  whole  cost  of  the  installation  in  a  given  num- 
ber of  years  all  must  be  given  their  full  consideration. 
To  call  the  Diesel  Engine  a  "cure-air*  is  a  mistake 
and  it  hurts  the  entire  Diesel  situation.  If  after  mak- 
ing an  extravagant  statement  the  facts  prove  other- 
wise the  engine  and  engines  as  a  whole  are  discred- 
ited. Fuel  economy  is  not  the  whole  story  in  the 
economical  generation  of  power,  for  the  matter  of 
fixed  charges  and  the  relative  cost  of  coal  and  oil  must 
be  weighed  impartially.  It  is  questionable  if  the  Diesel 
is  suitable  to  a  territory  served  by  an  electric  trans- 
mission system  having  a  diversified  load  factor  com- 
posed of  many  dififerent  industries  with  maximum 
demands  for  power  at  different  times  of  the  day  and 
at  different  times  of  the  year.  Such  a  system  can 
offer  inducements  of  low  rates  to  the  character  of  load 
to  which  the  Diesel  is  most  suited  that  need  careful 
consideration.  In  certain  industries  where  the  load 
factor  is  high  or  the  ratio  of  the  average  load  to  the 


94  THE    DIESEL    ENGINE    IN    PRACTICE 

maximum  demand  is  high,  such  as  with  ice  plants 
where  the  ice  machines  are  operated  24  hours  per  day 
over  the  large  part  of  the  year,  the  Diesel  engine 
shows  its  superiority  and  can  compete  with  any  type 
of  power  and  show  a  saving. 

A  simple  example  can  be  cited.  Suppose  an  ice 
plant  having  a  capacity  of  50  tons  of  ice  in  24  hours 
is  considered  and  the  cost  of  power  only  is  analyzed, 
the  engine  of  approximately  150  or  160  h.p.  will  cost 
about  $12,000  set  up  ready  to  operate.  Let  interest 
and  depreciation  be  figured  at  13  per  cent  per  annum 
which  is  enough  to  retire  the  whole  cost  in  ten  years. 
This  13  per  cent  amounts  to  $1560  per  annum  or  $4.33 
per  day.  To  this  must  be  added  the  cost  of  fuel, 
considering  that  the  engine  is  of  the  four-stroke-cycle 
type  and  is  delivering  its  full  160  h.p.  for  24  hr.  each 
day.  The  fuel  consumption  is  .41  lb.  per  b.h.p.,  or 
.41  X  160  h.p.  X'24  hours  =  1574  lb.  Assuming  that 
a  barrel  of  oil  costs  $1  and  weighs  315  lb.  the  number 
of  barrels  will  be  1574/315  or  approximately  five  bar- 
rels, or  $5  per  day  for  fuel.  Lubricating  oil  may  be 
guaranteed  to  be  1/10  of  a  gallon  per  hour,  .at  a  price 
ranging  from  30  to  40  cents  per  gal.  This  will  amount 
to  24X -40/10=96  cents  per  day.  In  an  ice  plant  it  would 
be  difficult  to  justly  apply  the  cost  of  labor  exactly 
where  it  belongs.  If  the  ice  machine  were  operated 
by  electric  motors  the  cost  of  labor  would  be  as  great 
as  if  the  plant  were  operated  by  the  Diesel  engine  and 
less  with  the  Diesel  engine  than  with  steam  driven 
ice  machinery.  For  convenience  let  us  divide  the 
cost  of  labor  in  half,  charging  half  to  the  power  and 
half  to  the  actual  manufacture  of  ice.  There  would 
be  required  in  such  a  plant  as  we  are  considering  a 


COMMERCIAL    SITUATION  95 

chief  engineer  and  two  assistants,  the  chief  taking  at 
least  a  part  of  the  24  hour  operation  for  his  watch, 
salary  of  the  chief  engineer  $1500  per  year  or  $125 
per  month,  and  two  engineers  at  $100  per  month,  or  a 
total  labor  charge  of  $325  per  month,  or  $10.83  per 
day,  a  half  of  which,  or  $5.42  to  charge  against  the 
cost  of  power.  A  charge  must  also  be  made  for  engine 
room  repairs,  such  as  new  valve  packing,  gaskets, 
springs,  emery,  etc.,  of  $150  per  year  or  approximately 
50  cents  per  day. 

To  recapitulate :    Cost  per  day  of  24  hours, 

Interest  and  depreciation   $4.33 

Fuel    5.00 

Lubricating    oil    96 

Labor    5.42 

Sundries    50 

Total     $16.21 

The  output  of  this  plant  is  50  tons  of  ice  per  24 
hours,  making  a  cost  per  ton  of  ice  for  power  32  cents, 
including  all  charges. 

Comparing  this  with  an  electric  motor  driven 
plant  using  the  same  size  ice  machine  it  would  require 
a  160  h.p.  motor  with  an  imput  of  133  kw.,  assuming 
90  per  cent  motor  efficiency,  or  3200  kw.-hr.  per  day 
of  24  hours.  At  1  cent  per  kw.-hr.  this  would  amount 
to  $32.00;  at  ^  cent  per  kw.-hr.  $16  per  day.  To  this 
must  be  added  $5.42  per  day  for  labor,  making  $37.42 
and  $21.42  respectively,  the  total  cost  of  power  per  day. 
This  shows  the  saving  by  using  a  Diesel  engine  with 
this  type  of  service  amount  to  $21.20  per  day  with  cur- 
rent at  1  cent  per  kw.hr.  and  $5.20  with  electricity 
at  the  Yz  cent  rate. 

If,  however,  the  yearly  load  factor  should  be  only 
50  per  cent,  or  in  other  words  the  plant  should  be 


96  THE    DIESEL    ENGINE    IN    PRACTICE 

run  for  only  six  months  and  shut  down  completely  for 
the  balance  of  the  year  the  apparent  Diesel  saving 
would  be  materially  reduced,  for  $16.21  X  182  days  of 
operation  =  $2950  cost  during  the  time  the  plant  is 
in  operation,  but  during  the  balance  of  the  year  the 
interest  and  depreciation  continue  and  there  must  be 
in  addition  a  charge  of  $4.33  X  182  days  or  $790  fixed 
charges,  making  a  total  of  $3740  per  year.  While 
with  electric  power  the  cost  would  be  entirely  pro- 
portionate to  the  number  of  days'  operation,  the  fixed 
charges  on  the  electrical  apparatus,  which  would  cost 
approximately  $1000,  being  wholly  inconsiderable. 
With  power  at  1  cent  and  ^  cent  per  kw.-hr.  the 
cost  of  power  would  be  $37.42  X'  182  =  $6810.00  and 
$21.42  X  182  days  =  $3900  respectively. 

The  above  gives  a  clear  conception  of  the  great 
effect  of  load  factor  on  the  total  cost  of  power.  In 
other  words,  fixed  charges,  interest,  depreciation,  in- 
surance and  taxes  go  on  day  and  night  regardless  of 
whether  the  plant  is  being  operated  or  not.  A  far 
more  marked  example  may  be  assumed  where  labor 
joins  fixed  charges  and  must  be  retained  whether  or 
not  the  apparatus  is  doing  the  full  useful  work,  for 
instance,  in  an  electric  light  plant  where  24  hr.  serv- 
ice is  maintained  and  during  part  of  this  time  but  an 
exceedingly  small  load  is  carried. 

In  comparison  with  a  steam  turbine  the  Diesel 
engine  will  cost  considerable  more  to  install,  but  the 
total  cost  of  operation,  including  fixed  charges  labor, 
fuel,  lubricating  oil  and  maintenance  may  b-e  consider- 
ably less  with  the  Diesel  if  the*  load  factor  is  between 
25  per  cent  and  50  per  cent. 


COMMERCIAL.    SITUATION  97: 

The  following  comparison  is  interesting:  Assume 
a  plant  consisting  of  one  200  kw.  unit  and  one  400 
kw.  unit,  a  total  capacity  of  600  kw.,  having  a  load' 
factor  of  25  per  cent,  oil  to  cost  $1  per  barrel.  The 
steam  turbine  plant  erected  would  cost  approximately' 
$50,000  while  the  Diesel  engine  would  cost  $73,000. 
These  costs  would  include  building  and  all  necessary 
apparatus  in  connection  with  each  of  the  installations. 
Operating  at  25%  load  factor  the  average  load  per  hour 
would  be  equivalent  to  125  kw.  or  the  load  per  year 
would  be  125  kw.  X  365  days  X  24  hours,  or  1,100,000 
kw.-hr.  A  steam  turbine  plant  of  this  size  may  be 
assumed  to  develop  190  kw.-hr  per  barrel  of  oil,  while 
a  Diesel  engine  plant  will  develop  100  kw.-hr.  for 
every  9  gal.  of  oil,  or  466  kw.  hr.  per  barrel.  The  num- 
ber of  barrels  per  year  for  the  steam  turbine  will  be 
1,100,000/190,  or  5800  barrels;  for  the  Diesel  engine 
the  consumption  per  year  will  be  2360  barrels.  The 
fixed  charges  of  14  per  cent  on  the  installation  cost 
on  both  Diesel  and  turbine  plant,  including  the 
boilers  the  life  of  the  turbine  plant  being  equal  to 
the  life  of  the  Diesel.  This  will  amount  to  $7000  per 
annum  on  the  steam  turbine  plant  and  $10,220  per 
annum  for  the  Diesel  engine,  the  total  of  fuel  and 
fixed  charges  in  the  case  of  the  turbine  being  $5800 
and  $7000  =  $12,800  per  annum.  With  the  Diesel 
engine  fuel  cost  $2360  in  addition  to  $10,220  =  $12,580. 
The  wages  in  the  Diesel  engine  plant  will  be  less  than 
those  in  the  steam  turbine  plant  but  the  lubrication 
of  the  Diesel  engine  will  be  slightly  in  excess  of  that 
of  the  steam  turbine.  The  maintenance,  including 
boiler  and  turbine  will  be  greater  on  the  steam  plant 
than  on  the  Diesel  engine.     The  cost  for  water  on  the 


98  THE    DIESEL    ENGINE    IN    PRACTICE 

steam  plant  will  be  in  excess  of  that  of  the  Diesel 
engine  and  it  would  be  difficult  in  any  ideal  case  as  we 
have  assumed,  to  compare  any  of  these  figures,  as 
they  so  greatly  depend  upon  the  locality  of  the  plant, 
but  neither  type  of  prime  mover  will  have  any  distinct 
advantage  over  the  other  in  these  regards. 

From  the  above  comparison  of  the  cost  of  fuel  and 
fixed  charges  the  Diesel  has  so  slight  an  advantage 
over  the  steam  turbine  at  25  per  cent  load  factor  that 
the  case  alone  would  not  indicate  the  choice  of  prime 
mover.  However,  as  the  load  factor  increases  the  ad- 
vantage of  the  Diesel  becomes  more  apparent  and  with 
50  per  cent  load  factor  the  following  is  the  result : 

The  fuel  cost  of  the  steam  turbine $11,600 

Fixed    charges    7,000 

Total $18,600 

.With  the  Diesel,   fuel   charge $    4,720 

Fixed  charges 10,220 

Total $14,940 

This  is  a  saving  of  approximately  $4000  per  year 
over  the  cost  of  operation  of  the  steam  turbine  plant. 
It  will  be  noted  that  the  fixed  charges  remain  constant 
and  the  fuel  charges  increase,  making  the  Diesel  con- 
tinue to  show  an  economy  as  the  load  factor  increases 
and  even  as  it  decreases  between  from  50  per  cent 
toward  25  per  cent  the  advantage  will  still  be  with  the 
Diesel.  At  the  50  per  cent  load  factor  it  will  be 
•  noted  that  the  $3600  per  year  saving  represents  almost 
5  per  cent  on  the  total  cost  of  the  Diesel  installation 
or  the  saving  on  the  Diesel  would  return  the  differ- 
ence in  cost  over  a  steam  turbine  plant  in  approxi- 
mately six  and  one-half  years. 


COMMERCIAL    SITUATION  99 

It  will  also  be  noted  from  this  analysis  that  the 
advantage  of  the  Diesel  increases  with  an  increase  of 
price  of  oil  for  the  item  of  fuel  consumption  would 
increase  in  each  case  for  both  the  steam  turbine  and 
the  Diesel,  but  more  so  with  the  steam  turbine  where 
the  fuel  consumption  is  at  a  greater  rate. 

But  there  enters  here  the  consideration  of  the 
consumption  of  coal,  so  again  the  situation  must  be 
looked  into  for  the  special  locality  of  the  proposed 
installation.  All  problems  of  the  installation  of  a  Diesel 
engine  revert  to  fixed  charges  or  the  value  of  the 
money  invested,  and  in  each  case  must  be  analyzed  on 
its  merits.  Where  oil  is  expensive  and  coal  cheap 
another  problem  presents  itself  and  again  the  load 
factor  will  undoubtedly  be  the  determining  issue.  In 
a  comparison  with  a  steam  plant  using  Corliss  engines 
the  Diesel  can  show  a  saving  at  lower  load  factor  than 
when  compared  with  steam  turbines,  although  the 
fuel  consumption  for  a  steam  engine  plant  may  be 
slightly   better. 


F 

laut 

Load. 

Time. 

Average  Load 

.  Total  load. 

A. 

1  a.m. 

to 

5  a.m. 

90 

kw. 

360 

kw.-hr. 

B. 

5  a.m. 

to 

7  a.m. 

110 

kw. 

220 

kw.-hr. 

C. 

7  a.m. 

to 

8  a.m. 

220 

kw. 

220 

kw.-hr. 

D. 

8  a.m. 

to 

noon 

170 

kw. 

680 

kw.-hr. 

E. 

noon 

to 

1  p.m. 

50 

kw. 

50 

kw.-hr. 

F. 

1  p.m. 

to 

5  p.m. 

170 

kw. 

680 

kw.-hr.  Av.  load,  141  kw. 

G. 

5  p.m. 

to 

6  p.m. 

300 

kw. 

300 

kw.-hr. 

H. 

6  p.m. 

to 

9  p.m. 

150 

kw. 

450 

kw.-hr. 

I. 

9  p.m. 

to 

11  p.m. 

110 

kw. 

220 

kw.-hr. 

J. 

11  p.m. 

to 

1  p.m. 

100 

kw. 

200 

kw.-hr. 

3380  kw.-hr.  Per  av.  day,  24  hr. 
Peak  load  say  315  kw. 


100  THE    DIESEL    ENGINE    IN    PRACTICE 

Diesel  Plant. 

Diesel  Engine  Plant,  consisting  of  2-240  b.h.p.  Diesels,  each 
with   a   160   kw.    direct   coupled   generator. 

Engines     Load  Fuel  Gal., 

Pe-          run-      on  each     Fuel  per       per  loo  Total       Engine 

riod.         ning.          kw.          kw.-hr.  lb.       kw.-hr.  fuel  gal.  hr. 

A.  1                  90                    .64                    8.9  32.0                    4 

B.  1               110                   .62                   8.6  18.9                   2 

C.  2               110                   .62                   8.6  18.9                   2 

D.  2                 85                   .65                   9.1  61.8                   8 

E.  1                 50                   .83                 11.6  5.8                   1 

F.  2                 85                   .65                   9.1  61.8                   8 

G.  2  150  .62  8.6  25.8  2 
H.  2  75  .68  9.5  42.7  6 
I.  1  110  .62  8.6  18.9  2 
J.              1               100                   .63                   8.8  17.6                   2 

304.2  37 

Add   8   per  cent   for   ordinary   conditions 24.3  2.5 

328.5  39.5 

(Gal.  fuel        (Call 
per  day.)        40  hr). 

Fuel  oil  at  $1.50  per  bbl.  delivered,  $150/42  3.67c  gals.,  or  $12 
per    day. 

Labor — 1  man  at  $100  mo.;  1  at  $80;  1  at  $60  =  $240  mo.  = 
$8.00  per   day. 

Lubrication — 1^4    pints    per    engine    hr.    (40    eng.    hr.)  =  6^/4 
gal.  per  day.     At  32c  per  gal,  delivered  =  $2.00  per  day. 
Water— At  65°  to  75°  F.  =  1500  gal.  per  eng.  hr.=:  60,000  gal.  per 
day.     Cost  of  pumping — 2c  per  1000  gal.  r=  $1.20  per  day. 
Maiuteuance — $300   per  annum  per  engine. 

25  per  annum  per  generator. 

$325  X  2  =  $650,   all   running   24   hr.    day    (48   eng. 
hr.   day).   Actual   only   40   hr.   per   day. 

650  40 

X r=$1.50    per    day. 

365  48 

Operating  Expenses — Diesel  Plant. 

Per  day. 

Lubricating    oil     $   2.00 

Labor     8.00  .    . 

Fuel     12.00 

Water    (pumping    cost) 1.20 

Supplies    50 

$23.70   or   .702c   per    kw.-hr. 
Maintenance     1.50 

$25.20   or  .746c  per  kw.-hr. 
Total    operating    expense    per    annum,    $25.20  X  365  =r  $9200. 


COMMERCIAI>.  SITUATION    ; ,    ,    ^  101 

Plant  Cost — 2  Diesels  and.  starid^?.rd  equiE<nj^n't;Vri'^ing^anX>Sun- 
dry;  1  Oil  Storage  Tanli — 12,000  gal.;  2  Generatdrs;  1  Switch- 
board; Station  Wiring;  Foundations,  120  yd.;  Erection. 
Approximately,    $41,400. 

Interest,  depreciation,  13  per  center  $5382  per  annum  = 
$14.77    per    day. 

Operating    $25.20 

Fixed   charges    14.77 

Total    cost    per    day $39.97 

Or,    $39.97/3380  =  1.18    cents    per    kw.-hr    total    expense. 

Steam   Plant. 

Consisting  of  2-200  I.H.P.  compound  condensing  Corliss 
engines,  each  with  140  k.v.a.  generator;  100  r.p.m.;  3-100  h.p. 
boilers. 

Total  constant  loss,  45  I.H.P.  each  engine  due  to  mechan- 
ical efficiency  of  engine,  generating  efficiency,  including  fric- 
tion  and   windage   losses. 

Load  I.H.P. 

Engines         in            (El.  H.  P.  Total  dry 

Pe-       run-         elec.         and  45  h.p.     Engine  H.P.  steam  to 

riod.      ning.          h.p.               loss).              hr.  hr.  engines. 

A.  1               120                   165                   4  660  9510 

B.  1               147                    192                    2  384  5530 

C.  2               295                   385                   1  385  5540 

D.  2               227                   317                   4  1268  18250 

E.  2                 67                   157                   1  157  2720 

F.  2               227                   317                   4  1268  18250 

G.  2  402  492  1  492  7330 
H.  1  201  246  3  738  11000 
I.  1  147  192  2  384  5530 
J.           1               134                   179                   2  o58  5160 

Test  conditions    6094  88820 

Add   8    per   cent   for   ordinary   conditions 7100 

95920  = 
15.75  per  hp.   hr. 
Add  3  per  cent  leakage  and  condensation,  10  per  cent  aux- 
iliaries and  oil   burners 12480 

Total    steam    for    boiler 108400 

(Per  day) 
Fuel — Actual  evaporation,  121  lb.  water  per.  lb.  fuel  oil. 

Fuel    per    day — 108000  ^  121  =:  9000    lb.  =  1250    gal.    (3.85 
times   as   much    as   Diesels). 

Fuel  at  $1.20  per  bbl. — 2.86c  per  gal.=  $35.75  per  day. 
liabor — 2   licensed  engineers  at   $125  mo.   each;   2   oilers  at   $2.00 
day    each;    2    firemen    at    $2.00    day    each — $490    mo.  = 
$16.33   per   day. 
W^ater — Boiler   feed    taken   from    condenser. 

Condensers   taking   25   to   1   condensing   water. 
95920  X  25 

=  288,000  gal.  p6r  day. 

8.3 

At   2c  per   1000   gal.   pumping  cost  =  $5.76   day. 


102  THE    DIESEL    ENGINE    IN    PRACTICE 

MalDtenauce— -Boil3rs  200  Vi.p. -rurxning"  at 

$1.50   per  h.p $300  per  annum. 

Auxiliaries    125  per  annum. 

Engines     and     generators 175  per  annum. 

$700  =  $1.92  per  day 
Oiierating  Expenses — Steam  Plant — 

Labor    $16.33   per  day. 

Fuel     35.75 

Lubricating    oil     1.37 

Water    5.75    (pump'ng-  cost) 

Supplies     75 

$59.96  -^  3380  =  1.77c  per  kw.-hr. 
Maintenance     1.92 

$61.88  -^  3380  =  1.83c  per  kw.-hr. 
Total  operating  expense  per  annum  $61.88  X  365  =  $22,600.00 

Comparison — Annual  operating  expenses,  Diesel $   9,200.00 

Annual    operating   expenses,    steam 22,600.00 

Difference   in   favor   of  Diesel    $13,400.00   per   annum   or   2*^ 
times  the  total  interest  and   depreciation  on   Diesel  plant. 

Or,    the    cost    of    current    with    steam    engine   for    operation 
alone  exceeds  the  total  cost  of  current  with  the  Diesel. 

Steam  Plant  Equipment. 

2-200  h.p.  Cross  compound  condensing-  Corliss  Engines  for  direct 
connection  to  alternator;  100  r.p.m. ;  for  150  lb.  ga.  pres- 
sure and  24  vacuum  ref'd  to  30  Barometer. 

2-140  k.v.a,  80  per  cent  P.F.,  60-cycle,  3-phase,  2300-volt,  100 
r.p.m.,  Eng.   type  g-enerator, 

2  belted  exciters  for  same. 

2  jet  condensing  equipments,  complete  for  above  engines  suit- 
able for  24  in.  vacuum  ref'd  to  30  Barometer,  with  water 
at  70°  F. 

3-100  h.p.  (1000  sq.  ft.  heating  surface)  boilers,  complete  with 
all   trimmings. 

1  oil  burning"  equipment  complete  for  above  boilers. 

2-200  sq.  ft.  closed  heater. 

2-50   g.p.m.   feed  pumps  . 

All    station    piping". 

2-12000  gal.  oil   storage  tanks. 

This  comparison  is  a  most  rigid  one,  showing  a 
lighting  and  power  load,  the  Diesel  plant  consisting  of 
two  engines  direct  connected  to  generators,  price  per 
barrel  for  oil  being  placed  at  a  high  figure— in  the  case 
of  the  Diesel  $1.50  per  barrel,  the  cost  of  the  steam 
plant  $1.20  per  barrel.  It  is  interesting  to  note  the 
difference  in  favor  of  the  Diesel  and  its  comparison 


COMMERCIAL    SlTUAtlGN  103 

with  the  total  interest  and  dtipreciatlcnjc^r;  , the,  Diesel 
plant.  . 

Another  interesting  comparison  between  the  cost 
of  power  as  produced  by  the  Diesel  engine  compared 
with  the  cost  of  purchased  electricity  is  illustrated  in 
the  following  example :  Assume  a  plant  to  consist 
of  two  500  h.p.  engines,  generators,  exciters  and  all 
necessary  equipment,  delivered  and  erected  for  $78,000, 
interest  figured  at  7  per  cent  per  annum,  a  sinking  fund 
of  7  per  cent  fixed  charges,  including  taxes  and  insur- 
ance, to  amount  of  15  per  cent  per  annum  on  the  total 
investment.  The  operating  cost  is  shown  on  the  basis 
of  8  hours,  16  hours  and  24  hours'  operation,  with  oil 
as  noted  at  $1  per  barrel.  The  cost  of  power,  including 
fuel  oil,  lubricating  oil,  maintenance,  labor  and  fixed 
charges  show  a  total  cost  per  horsepower  year  varying 
from  $18  to  $27  as  against  the  cost  of  purchased  elec- 
tricity at  1  cent  per  kw.-hr.  of  $16  to  $38  per  h.p.  per 
year.  The  result  of  this  comparison  is  plotted  in  Fig. 
24  and  shows  that  as  the  number  of  hours  of  operation 
increases  the  cost  of  purchased  electricity  increases  at  a 
more  rapid  rate  than  electricity  produced  by  the  Diesel 
engine  and  that  if  the  plant  is  operated  for  over  10^ 
hr.  the  Diesel  is  the  most  economical  type  of  prime 
mover.  This  emphasizes  plainly  the  bearing  of  load 
factor  to  the  cost  of  power  compared  with  the  pur- 
chase of  electricity.  If  the  proposed  plant  operates 
more  than  10^  hr.  it  would  be  more  economical  to 
install  the  Diesel  engine  than  to  purchase  electricity 
at  the  low  rate  of  Ic  per  kw.-hr. 


104  'THE    DIElSEI^    feMlNE    IN    PRACTICE 


Fig-.   27. 


COMMERCIAL.    SITUATION  105 

First    Cost. 

A  plant  to  consist  of  2  engines,  500  h.p.  each;  2  generators, 
336  kw. ;  switchboard,  exciters,  piping  and  connections,  erected 
in  a  suitable  building,  including  an  oil  tank,  for  $78,000  or 
$116   per  kw. 

Fixed   Cliarg^es — 

Interest,    depreciation,    taxes    and  -insurance   at   15    per   cent 
per   annum,    $11,700. 

0]>eratinsr  expense  operating  300  days  per  year  at  8  hr.  per 
day,    16   hr.   per   day   and   24   hr.   per  day. 

8   hr.   per  day.  16   hr.  24   hr. 

Fuel    consumption    oil    (at    $1    bbl)  .      3270  6540  9810 

Lubricating  oil  at   32c  per   gal 256  512  768 

Maintenance 300  300  300 

Labor,  8  hr.,  1  at  $1500  per  yr.,  1  at 

$1100  per  yr 2600 

16    hr.,    1    at    $1500    per    yr.,    2    at 

$1100  per  yr 3700 

24    hr.,    1    at    $1500    per    yr.,    3    at 

$1100  per  yr 4800 

Total $6,426  $11,052         $15,678 

$18,126  $22,752  $27,378 

Or  cost  per  h.p.  yr.  for  power....  $   18.12$  $   22.75  $   27.37 
Electric    power    at    Ic    per    kw.-hr. 

based  on   672   kw.   capacity $   16.12  $  27.25  $  38.60 


CHAPTER  XI 
DIESEL  APPLIED  TO  MARINE  PURPOSES 

The  beginning  of  the  application  of  Diesel  engines 
for  mercantile  ships  was  made  in  Russia  on  the  river 
Volga  and  the  Caspian  Sea.  They  were  designed  for 
ships  owned  by  the  firm  of  Nobel  Bros,  in  Petrograd 
and  were  partly  built  in  their  own  shops  and  partly 
at  the  Kolonna  Works  in  Moscow  and  at  the  Swedish 
Diesel  Engine  Company  in  Stockholm. 

These  new  marine  engines  were  first  built  in  Rus- 
.sia  for  two  reasons:  First,  because  there  are  large 
oil  wells  at  the  Caspian  Sea,  whereas  other  fuels  are 
expensive  in  that  vicinity.  This  brought,  therefore, 
the  first  stationary  engines  from  the  Maschinenfabrik 
Augsburg-Nurnberg  at  an  early  time  to  these  coun- 
tries. But,  that  cheap  oil  and  expensive  coal  does  not 
necessarily  lead  to  the  early  adoption  of  marine  Diesel 
engines  is  demonstrated  on  the  Pacific  Coast  of  the 
United  States  in  regard  to  stationary  engines,  where 
circumstances  are  similar  in  this  respect. 

The  second  factor  was  the  progressiveness  of 
Nobel  Bros.,  who,  being  owners  of  oil  fields,  as  well  as 
of  ships  and  engine  works,  had  everything  in  their  pos- 
session necessary  for  the  realization  of  their  plans  in 
this  line. 

In  this  way  there  existed  in  Russia  several  marine 
Diesel  engines  long  before  the  rest  of  the  world  earn- 


DIESEL    APPLIED    TO    MARINE    PURPOSES        107 

estly  considered  the  manufacture  of  such  engines.  The 
construction,  however,  was  mainly  the  same  as  of  the 
standard  stationary  engines  of  the  Nurnberg  type  with 
slight  changes.  But,  when  observing  the  present  day 
big  Diesel  engines  for  sea-going  ships,  it  is  noticed 
that  the  valves  and  valve  gear  are  copied  from  the  orig- 
inal stationary  engines ;  otherwise  they  are  different 
in  many  ways.  After  the  engines  of  Nobel  Bros,  a 
few  small  marine  Diesel  engines  were  turned  out  in 
1910  by  Sulzer  Bros,  of  Winterthur,  and  the  Machi- 
nenfabrik  Augsburg-Nurnberg,  known  in  their  country 
as  the  Nurnberg  Company.  These  engines  were  high- 
speed, box  frame  engines  of  comparatively  low  power. 
They  did  not  yield  much  satisfaction  in  continued 
service,  being  much  of  the  type  of  light  weight  sub- 
marine engines. 

Up  to  1910  all  marine  Diesel  engines  were  de- 
signed with  the  long  trunk  piston  in  which  the  wrist 
pin  was  fixed,  to  which  the  connecting  rod  was  fas- 
tened. In  1910  for  the  first  time,  a  box-shaped  piston 
with  piston  rod,  cross-head  and  guide  was  introduced 
in  place  of  trunk  pistons  and  are  now  used  in  almost 
all  types  of  marine  Diesel  engines.  At  this  time  there 
was  also  applied  the  four  tie-rods  around  each  cylinder 
coupling  most  directly  the  upward  forces  due  to  the 
pressure  on  the  cylinder  heads  and  the  downward 
forces  on  the  main  bearings  due  to  the  pressure  on  the 
pistons.  By  these  means  it  became  possible  to  keep 
the  cast  iron  frame  in  which  the  connecting  rods  move, 
very  light  and  to  provide  for  big  apertures,  as  this 
box-shaped  frame  had  to  carry  the  weight  of  the  cyl- 
inder only,  no  forces  being  transmitted  through  it. 


108  THE    DIESEL    ENGINE    IN    PRACTICE 


Fig.   28 


Six-Cylinder  Werkspoor  Marine  Diesel  Engine 
of  the  "Vulcanus,"  450  b.h.p. 


DIESEL    APPLIED    TO    MARINE    PURPOSES         109 

After  the  small  Diesel  marine  engines,  the  six- 
cylinder  engine  of  the  "Vulcanus"  was  the  first  full- 
powered  reversible  Diesel  engine,  shown  in  section  in 
Fig.  28.  This  engine  had  a  capacity  of  450  b.h.p.  at  180 
r.p.m.  The  cylinder  was  15.7  in.  in  diameter  and  31.5 
in.  stroke.  The  ship  is  of  1000  tons,  owned  in  Holland.. 
The  hull  and  engine  was  built  in  Amsterdam ;  it  was 
ordered  in  1910  and  in  December  of  the  same  year  the 
trial  trip  took  place. 

In  the  beginning  trouble  was  encountered  with 
the  air  compressors  and  also  through  the  lack  of  ex- 
perience of  the  engine  attendants.  The  ship  has,  how- 
ever, completed  successfully  every  voyage  undertaken, 
among  others  a  trip  from  France  to  Singapore  with- 
out an  extra  stoppage  at  sea,  and  it  is  in  permanent 
service  in  India  at  present,  to  the  full  satisfaction  of 
the  owners. 

The  engine  of  the  "Vulcanus"  is  directly  reversible, 
there  being  two  cam-shafts,  one  with  cams  set  for 
forward  motion,  the  other  for  backward  motion.  The 
hand-wheel  for  the  reversing  is  mounted  on  a  handle 
case,  where  all  the  operations  necessary  for  starting, 
reversing,  regulating  and  stopping  can  be  controlled. 
The  valves  and  levers  in  the  cylinder  heads  do  not 
differ  from  what  is  ordinary  practice  for  four-stroke- 
cycle  stationary  Diesel  engines. 

The  fuel  pump  shows  an  interesting  feature.  There 
is  only  one  pump  and  one  spare  pump  for  the  whole 
engine.  The  oil  is  pumped  into  an  accumulator,  which 
stops  the  pump  when  full  by  keeping  the  suction  valve 
open.  The  "Vulcanus"  is  now  plying  between  the  East 
Indian  Islands,  making  short  trips. 


110  THE    DIESEL    ENGINE    IN    PRACTICE 


Fig.  29.     Werkspoor  Marine  Diesel  Engine,  1100  b.h.p. 


DIESEL    APPLIED    TO    MARINE    PURPOSES         111 

There  is  inserted  here  a  comparison  made  by  the 
marine  superintendent  of  the  Anglo  Saxon  Petroleum 
Company,  the  following  comparison  showing  the  result 
of  two  years'  actual  working  with  the  Diesel  Ship  " Vul- 
canus"  and  the  S.  S.  ^*Sabine  Rickmers"  using  coal : 

s.  s 

"Vulcanus"  "Sabine  Rickmers" 

Length    196  ft.     0  in.  200  ft.     0  in. 

Breadth    37  ft.     9   in.  30  ft.     6  in. 

Draught    12  ft.      41/2    in.  16   ft.      9   in. 

Deadweight — 

Carrying    capacity 1235   tons  1269   tons 

Displacement    2080   tons  2290  tons 

.  Engines 6  cylinder  Triple 

reversible  expansion 

The  following  economic  results  have  been  shown 
in  service : 

S.  S.  "Sabine 

"Vulcanus."  Rickmers." 

Total  running  time  on  voyage 8.26  days  7.04  days 

Total    distance    1530  miles  1473   miles 

Mean  speed   7.7   Knots  8.7  knots 

Average  oil  consumption  per  day  of 

24  hr 2.06   tons  13.4   tons 

Cargo     976  tons  1013  tons 

Dead     weight     1112   tons  1225   tons 

A  Striking  example  of  the  advantages  associated 
with  low  fuel  consumption  is  to  be  found  in  the  fact 
that  the  ''Vulcanus"  recently  completed  a  voyage  of 
eighty-eight  days  without  bunkering  at  any  interme- 
diate port.  On  this  particular  run  she  left  Europe  in 
August  with  140  tons  of  fuel  oil  in  her  bunkers  and  re- 
turned in  November,  covering  a  distance  of  some  10,- 
750  miles.  Nevertheless,  six  tons  of  liquid  fuel  re- 
mained on  board  after  the  completion  of  the  voyage. 
Thus  the  total  consumption  was  134  tons  in  65.7  oper- 
ating days  or  2.03  tons  per  diem. 

The  ''Vulcanus"  held  for  the  full  year  the  place  of 
being  the  only  full-powered  Diesel  ship  afloat,  from 


112  THE    DIESEL    ENGINE    IN    PRACTICE 

the  end  of  1910  to  1911,  when  the  "Seml3ilan"  was  con- 
structed. This  vessel  had  a  comparatively  small  en- 
gine of  200  h.p.  in  three  cylinders,  the  engine  being 
reversible.  This  vessel  proved  very  successful  and 
is  at  present  running  to  the  East  Indies,  the  owners 
having  since  ordered  five  engines  for  larger  vessels. 

In  February,  1912,  the  "Selandia,"  the  first  marine 
Diesel  engine  installation  built  by  Burmeister  &  Wain 
of  Copenhagen,  was  completed.  She  is  a  twin-screw 
vessel  with  engines  of  1000  b.h.p.  each,  four-cycle. 

It  may  be  interesting  to  note  the  results  obtained 
with  one  of  the  latter  Burmeister  &  Wain  engines,  by 
comparing  the  Diesel  ship  ''Siam"  with  two  steam- 
ships "Kina"  and  ''Arabien."  The  ships  belong  to 
the  same  owners  and  the  voyages  are  the  first  made 
by  each  ship. 

S.  S.  "Kina"  and  "Arabien"  are  single-screw  ships 
of  'the  following  dimensions  : 

Length 385  ft.      Oin. 

Beam 53   ft.     Oin. 

Draught 26  ft.   10 %    in. 

Deadweight     8720  tons 

Bunker  capacity    (coal)    770   tons 

They  were  built  in  1911  by  Swan  Hunter  & 
Wigham  Richardson  and  driven  by  triple  expansion 
steam  engines.  They  are  the  most  economical  and 
latest  type  of  steamships  in  every  respect. 

The  Diesel-engine  ship  "Siam"  was  built  and  en- 
gined  by  Burmeister  &  Wain  of  Copenhagen.  The 
dimensions  are : 

Length 410  ft.      0   in. 

Beam    55   ft.     0   in. 

Draught 30   ft.      6  in. 

Deadweight 9700  tons 

Bunker  capacity    (oil) 1250  tons 


DIESEL    APPLIED    TO    MARINE    PURPOSES         113 

'Tire  voyages  made  by  these  ships  are  the  same, 
so  that  the  results  are  well  suited  for  comparison. 

S.  S.  ''Kina."  first  voyage  June  16,  1911,  to  No- 
vember 25,  1911: 

Full  outbound  load  in  Antwerp — 

8720  tons  —  1162  tons  =  7558  tons  cargo. 
Fiull  homebound  load  from  S'abang — 

8720  tons —  932  tons  =  7788  tons  cargo 
Mean    Cargo — 7673    tons. 

Diesel-engine  ship  "Siam,"  first  voyage,  April  9, 
1913,  to  October  4,  1913: 

Full  outbound  load  in  Antwerp — 

9500  tons —    493  tons  =  9007  tons 
Full    home   load   in   Hankow — 

9500  tons  —  1168   tons  =  8332   tons 

Mean   cargo — 8670   tons. 

From  the  engine  room  report  of  these  two  ships, 
the   following  data   are   of  interest : 

.             .                                                                     S.  S.  "Kina."  D.  S.  "Slam." 

1st  Voyage.  1st  Voyage. 

Duration   of  trip 163   days  182   days 

Time  passed  at  sea,  engine  working.  .  .      109   days  107.5   days 

Time  passed  in  harbor 54  days  74.5  days 

Distance   in    miles 27,808.0  27,818.0 

Numbers   of  hours  regular  running.  .  .  .              2,517  2,497 

Manoeuvering    92  82 

Mean    speed,    knots •  •  •  •                H-O  11.14 

Number  of  hours  auxiliary  engine  run- 
ning  starboard    ...  . 2,127.5 

Number  of  hours  auxiliary  engine  run- 
ning   port    1,666.5 

Fuel    consumption    per    mile 174.5   kg.  coal   40.25  kg.  oil 

(384.6   lb.)  (88.7   lb.) 
Lubricating  oil   consumption  per  I.H.P. 

per    hr 0.206   gr.  1.64  gr. 

(.0072   oz.)  (.0577   oz.) 

Fuel  consumption   for  firing  up 49.6   tons  0 

Stand-by    losses    31.6   tons  0 

For  full  steam  no  propulsion    7.8   tons  0 

Regular  propulsion    4,415.0   tons  1,061.98   tons 

Manoeuvering 71.9   tons  14.74   tons 

Electric    light    59.6   tons  19.04   tons 

Heating 10.7   tons  0.6   tons 

Winches  and  pumps    179.6   tons  23.84   tons 

Fuel   for   niain   engine    4,576.3   tons  1,076.72   tons 

Fuel   for   auxiliaries    282.3   tons  43.48   tons 

.Tot3.1' fUel    consumption: .4,858.6  tons  1,120.2     tons 


114  THE    DIESEL    ENGINE    IN    PRACTICE 

Economic  results  for  one  round  trip,  Europe,  East 
Asia  and  back : 

Cargo     7,673  8,670 

1000    tons    of   cargo    carried    one    mile 

at    a    speed    of    about    11    knots    at 

fuel    consumption    22.8   kg.   coal     4.65   kg.   oil 

(50.3   lb.)  (10.25    lb.) 

Price    of    fuel    per    ton $5.40    (coal)        $8.60    (oil) 

1000  tons  of  cargo  carried  one  mile  at 

a  speed  of  11  knots  at  fuel  expense  of       12.3  cts.  4.0  cts. 

Total  fuel  expense  for  a  cargo  load  of 

8500    tons    for    transportation    from 

Copenhagen   to   East  Asia  and  back 

(27,818  miles)  at  a  speed  of  11  knots        $30  300  $9,900 

Outgoing  cargo 8720  —  1555   tons  =  7165   tons 

Cargo   when    plying   between    the 

West   Coast   and   Japan    8870  —  1085   tons  =  7635   tons 

Homebound  cargo    8720  —  1120   tons  =  7600   tons 

Average  cargo  for  the  whole  voy- 

voyage  about   7500  tons 

From  the  engine  log  book  of  these  two  ships  the 
following  items  are  of  interest: 

S.  S.  "Arabien"  D.  S.   "Siam" 

5th  voyage.  2d  voyage. 

Duration   of  voyage 300  days  236   days 

Tim'e  spent  at  sea  engines  working.  .  .  .      183   days  140  days 

Time   spent   in   port 117   days  96   days 

Distance    in    miles 45,676  34,819 

Number   of   hours    regular   running....               4,278  3,279 

Number  of  hours  manoeuvering. 109  88 

Average  speed,   knots 10,7  10.6 

Number  of  hours   auxiliary  engine   run- 
ning port    2,539 

Number  of  hours  auxiliary  engine  run- 
ning port    2,665 

Fuel    consumption    per    mile 186.4  kg.  coal   41.5  kg.  oil 

(410.8   lb.)  (91.5   lb.) 
Lubricating   oil    consumption   per  I.H.P. 

hour     0.866   gr. 

(.03   oz.) 

Fuel  consumption   for   firing  up 66   tons  0 

Stand-by    losses    77.5   tons  0 

Fur  full  steam  no  propulsion 16.95   tons  0 

Regular  propulsion    7,600.75   tons  1,357.9   tons 

Manoeuvering 102.5   tons  18.3   tons 

Electric  light 149.75   tons  23.4   tons 

Heating    49.25   tons  27.5   tons 

Winches  and  pumps    396.25   tons  18.9   tons 

Fuel   for   main    engine 7,863.7   tons  1,376.2   tons 

Fuel   for   auxiliaries    670   tons  69.8   tons 

Total  fuel  consumption 8,533.7   tons  1,446  tons 


DIESEL    APPLIED    TO    MARINE    PURPOSES         115 
Economic  results  for  trip  around  the  world: 

1000   tons  of  cargo  carried   one  mile 

at   a   speed    of    10,6    knots    at    fuel 

consumption   of    25  kg.  4.9  kg. 

(55.1  lb.)  (10.8   lb.) 

Price  of  fuel  per  ton $5.40    (coal)        $8.60    (oil) 

1000   tons   of  cargo   carried   one   mile 

at  a  speed  of  10.6  knots  at  fuel  ex- 
pense  of    13.5   cts.  4.2   cts. 

Total    fuel    expense     for     a     voyage 

round    the    world    covering    35,000 

miles,  which  coincides  with  Diesel 

engine    ship    "Siam's    case    of    8500 

tons  at  a  speed  of  10.8  knots  amounts 

to    $40,000  $12,600 


rf7TTi~Tr-._ 


MIETZ    &  WEISS 
DIRECT  RtVERSiete    OIL.  CNCiNC 


Typical  American  Marine  Engine. 

Attention  is  drawn  to  the  following.  The  engine 
room  attendance  in  S.  S.  ''Kina"  consists  of  3  engi- 
neers, 2  assistant  engineers  and  14  firemen,  a  total  of 


116  THE    DIESEL    ENGINE    IN    PRACTICE 

19  men.  In  the  Diesel  ship  "Siam"  it  consists  of  4  engi- 
neers, 5  assistant  engineers  and  4  oil  men,  a  total  of 
13    men. 

S.  S.  "Kina"  bunkered  coal  10  times  on  the  voy- 
age. D.  S.  "Siam"  bunkered  oil  twice  on  the  voyage; 
the  last  time  so  much  that  the  ship  on  the  next  trip 
over  the  same  route  only  needed  bunkering  once. 

Diesel  ship  "Siam" :  Second  voyage;  trip  around 
the  world.  From  Europe,  South  America  to  west 
coast  of  the  U.  S.  A.,  from  thence  to  Japan,.  China, 
Vladivostok  and  back  through  the  Suez  Canal: 

Outgoing    cargo    9500  —  780  tons  =  8720  tons 

Cargo     when     plying     between     the 

West  Coast  and  Japan .  . 9500  —  1056   tons  =  8440  tons 

Homebound  cargo    9500  —  1215   tons  =:  8285   tons 

Average  cargo  for  the  whole  voyage  about 8500  tons 

S.  S.  "Arabien";  Fifth  Voyage: 

The  steamship  "Arabien''  bunkered  14  times  dur- 
ing'the  voyage.  The  Diesel-engine  ship  "Siam"  bun- 
kered only  three  times  during  the  voyage,  and  of  these 
one  was  caused  by  a  mistake  in  the  execution  of  the 
order. 

At  the  end  of  the  trip  the  remaining  oil  was  suf- 
ficient to  carry  the  ship  back  to  the  oil-supplying  port 
without  bunkering  under  way.  A  saving  of  about 
68  per  cent  in  fuel  expense  is  the  practical  result  ob- 
tained with  the  use  of  the  Diesel-engined  ship  on 
the  voyage.  This  included  all  consumption  needed 
for  loading  and  unloading,  lighting,  heating,  etc.  The 
extra  saving  by  smaller  crew,  bigger  cargo-carrying 
capacity  of  the  Diesel-engined  ship  were  not  even 
taken  into  account. 

The  longer  the  voyages  are  without  stopping,  the 
more  economical  the  Diesel-engined  ships  are. 


DIESEL    APPLIED    TO    MARINE    PURPOSES         117 

The  onl}^  condition  in  the  choice  of  route  to  be 
taken  for  the  Diesel-engined  ship  is  that  it  should  be 
such  that  the  ship  may  enter  ports  where  oil  is  avail- 
able. 

•  In  1912  Messrs.  Sulzer  Bros,  installed  engines  in 
the  ''Monte  Penedo."  The  two  engines  are  two 
cycle,  single-acting  with  four  cylinders  of  18.5  in.  bore 
and  26.9  in.  stroke,  having  a  speed  of  160  r.p.m.  The 
data  of  the  ship  are : 

Length " 351  feet 

Beam 50   feet 

Depth 26.9   feet 

Speed    . ^ 10  knots 

Deadweight     4000   tons 

Bunker    capacity     700  tons 

Weight  of  engines  and  auxiliaries 160   tons 

Power     1700   h.p. 

The  "Monte  Penedo''  engines  are  remarkable  for 
the  absence  of  inlet  and  exhaust  valves.  The  only 
valves  in  the  cylinder  heads  are  those  for  fuel  injection 
and  starting  air.  It  makes  a  simple  cylinder  head  but 
involves  complications  in  the  cylinder  wall.  The  ex- 
haust takes  place  through  openings  in  the  cylinder 
wall  forming  one-half  circle,  whereas  the  other  half 
of  the  periphery  is  taken  by  openings  for  scavenging 
air.  Of  those  there  are  two  rows,  one  above  the  other, 
and  the  communication  between  the  air  main  and  the 
top  row  of  openings  can  be  blocked  by  a  double- 
seated  valve.  This  arrangement  serves  to  keep  the 
scavenging  air  pipe  closed  at  the  beginning  of  the  ex- 
haust and  then  to  keep  it  open  after  the  exhaust  is 
closed,  thus  preventing  the  exhaust  gases  from  enter- 
ing in  the  air  line  first  and  afterward  securing  an 
'  abundancy  of  fresh  air  at  the  start  of  the  compression. 


118  THE    DIESEL    ENGINE    IN    PRACTICE 

The  "Monte  Penedo"  is  probably  the  most  success- 
ful two-cycle  marine  motor  at  present  in  service.  After 
some  trouble  with  the  pistons  on  the  first  voyage  (the 
extension  required  to  shut  the  exhaust  and  inlet  ports 
worked  loose)  the  construction  was  altered,  and  since 
then  the  motors  have  given  full  satisfaction.  It  must 
not  be  forgotten,  however,  that  these  engines  were  of 
the  best  workmanship  that  can  probably  be  found  and 
were  operated  by  trained  engineers. 

In  1913  the  *'Hagen,"  built  by  Messrs.  Krupp 
started  on  her  first  trip.  She  is  equipped  with  two 
single-acting  two-cycle  engines,  each  composed  of  6 
cylinders  18.9  in.  bore  and  31.5  in.  stroke,  running  140 
r.p.m.  The  ship's  dimensions  are:  400  ft.  long,  S3  ft. 
])eam  and  32.3  ft.  depth ;  carrying  capacity,  8350  tons, 
speed,  11  knots;  weight  of  machinery,  580  tons. 

In  1914  the  increase  of  ships  with  motors  is  quite 
remarkable. 

Burmeister  &  Wain  of  Copenhagen  delivered  in 
1914: 

Size   of  Ship  No.  of 
Name                                   Length  x  Beam  x  Depth.          I.H.P.   Screws 

Pacific    362   ft.   x   51    ft.   3   in.   x   25   ft.    6  in.      2000  2 

Kronprince  Gus- 

taf   Adolf    ...    362   ft.    x   51    ft.    3   in.   x   25   ft.    6  in.      20oO  2 

Fionia    410   ft.    x    53   ft.    x   38   ft.                              4000  2 

Kronprincessin 

Margrarete     .  .    362   ft.    x   51   ft.   3   in.   x   25    ft.    6  in.      2000  2 

Malakka     410   ft.   x   55   ft.   x   30   ft.   6  in.                3000  2 

Tonking-     410   ft.   x   55   ft.   x   30   ft.   6   in.                 3000  2 

Werkspoor  of  Amsterdam  has  delivered  tlie  en- 
gines for: 

Size   of  Ship  No.  of 
Name.                                  Length  x  Beam  x  Depth.          I.H.P.   Screws 

Elbruz     375   ft.   x   40   ft.   x   29   ft.                              2.900  2 

Ares     345  ft.   x  46   ft.   6   in.   x   27  ft.   5  in.      2300  2 

Artemis     346   ft.   x   46   ft.    6   in.   x   27   ft.   5  in.      2300  2 

Selene     346   ft.   x   46   ft.   6   in.   x   27   ft.   5  in.      2300  2 

Hermes     346   ft.   x   46   ft.   6   in.   x   27   ft.   5  in.      2300  2 

Jules    Henry....    305   ft.  x   40   ft.   x   23   ft                              1350  2 

Poseidon     185  ft.   x  30  ft.   6   in.   x   13   ft.   3  in.        450  1 


DIESEL    APPLIED    TO    MARINE    PURPOSES         119 

The  Southwark  Foundry  and  Machine  Co.  are 
building  the  Southwark  Harriss  Valveless  Engine.  It 
is  of  the  verticle  two-cycle  type  operating  on  the  full 
Diesel  principle.  This  engine,  though  it  is  made  for 
both  stationary  and  marine  application  is  used  most 
extensively  aboard  ship. 

In  the  marine  engine  a  step  piston  is  used,  the 
lower  portion  of  which  acts  as  a  scavenger  air  com- 
pressor and  also  for  starting  the  engine.  The  starting 
air  of  relative  low  pressure,  175  lb.  per  in.,  is  allowed  to 
enter  the  lower  cylinder,  in  this  way  avoiding  the  ne- 
cessity of  this  cold  aid  entering  the  working  cylinder 
and  causing  violent  temperature  changes.  This  lower 
piston  also  acts  as  a  crosshead,  taking  the  side  thrust 
of  the  connecting  rod.  In  manoeuvering  a  vessel  the 
air  cylinder  is  said  to  assist  the  working  cylinder  by 
using  compressed  air  if  it  is  desirable.  The  engine 
is  reversible  and  as  the  engine  operates  on  the  two- 
stroke-cycle  principle  this  is  comparatively  simple,  due 
to  the  absence  of  valves.  The  engine  is  made  two  to 
eight  cylinders  from  120  to  2000  h.p.  This  engine  is 
installed  in  many  vessels  on  the  Pacific  Coast  and 
many  more  on  the  Atlantic. 

The  Bolinder,  a  semi-Diesel  engine,  made  in 
Sweden,  has  been  successfully  operated  in  a  number  of 
vessels  in  this  country. 

The  Polar  Diesel  Engine  Company  of  Stock-* 
holm,  delivered  the  twin-screw  two-cycle  engines  of 
about  800  h.p.  each  for  the  "Sebastian,"  built  at  Dun- 
dee, but  they  did  not  give  satisfaction. 

In  May,  1914,  the  "Arum,"  with  English-built 
Polar  type  engines  made  her  trial.  The  engines  are  of 
the  sigle-acting,  two-cycle  type.  Each  of  the  two  en- 
gines has  4  cylinders,  bore  16.2  in.,  stroke  3.9  in.,  speed 


r 


120  THE    DIESEL    ENGINE    IN    PRACTICE 

135  r.p.m.,  power  rated  at.  650  l).h.p.  each  The  princi- 
pal dimensions  of  the  ship  are  360  ft.  by  47  ft.  by  27  ft. 
depth,  22  ft.  draft,  carrying  550  tons.  After  perform- 
ing various  short  trips,  the  "Arum"  was  sent  on  her 
first  long  voyage  to  the  Persian  Gulf,  which  was  per- 
fectly successful  according  to  reports  obtained. 

The  German  motorship  ''Secundus"  started  her 
career  likewise  in  1914.  The  owner,  Hamburg- 
American  line,  now  possesses  two  motor  motor  vessels, 
"Christian  X"  and  "Secundus."  The  former  has  four- 
cycle Burmeister  Wain  engines,  the  latter  has  two- 
cycle  engines  built  by  Blohm  &  Voss  of  Hamburg. 
Each  of  these  two  engines  has  four  cylinders  of  23.6  in. 
bore,  the  stroke  is  36.2  in.,  speed  120  r.p.m.,  power 
1850  h.p.  per  engine. 

The  scavenging  air  is  produced  by  a  pump  worked 
by  levers  off  one  of  the  cross  heads.  The  air  enters 
the  cylinders  through  4  poppet  valves  in  each  cylin- 
der head. 

The  exhaust  gases  leave  the  cylinders  through 
openings  in  the  cylinder  walls,  and  a  water-cooled 
pipe.  The  lower  part  of  the  engine  resembles  a  steam 
engine,  but  forced  lubrication  is  employed;  the  crank- 
shaft bearings  are  water  cooled.  The  pistons  are 
cooled  with  fresh  water,  which  may  be  considered  an 
unnecessary  complication. 

The  "Secundus"  made  one  complete  voyage  from 
Hamburg  to  Nevv^  York  and  back.  At  the  outbreak 
of  the  war  she  had  not  started  her  second  voyage  and 
is  now  therefore  presumably  at  Hamburg. 

The  results  obtained  with  a  few  non-reversible  en- 
gines of  350  b. h.p.,  driving  propellers  with  reversible 
blades   promise   a   great   future   for  such   engines   for 


DIESEL    APPLIED    TO    MARINE    PURPOSES         121 

medium  size  crafts.  The  reversing  of  the  blades 
is  performed  with  aid  of  the  engine  power.  The  ad- 
vantage of  this  is  the  excellent  security  of  manoeuver- 
ing,  which  is  controlled  directly  from  the  bridge.  The 
installation  is  of  course  far  simpler  than  one  with  re- 
versible engines.  The  manoeuvering  air  reservoirs 
are  cut  out  and  the  auxiliaries  are  of  a  far  simpler 
nature. 

In  designing  a  motor  ship  an  important  question 
is,  how  to  drive  the  deck-machinery  and  the  auxiliaries^ 
in  the  engine  room.  When  plenty  of  money  and  good 
personnel  is  available,  the  best  system  is  to  generate 
electricity  by  Diesel  engines  and  drive  everything 
electrically.  Where  fuel  to  heat  a  boiler  is  expensive, 
this  system  is  also  the  most  economical  in  the  long 
run.  In  first  cost  it  is,  however,  the  greatest,  and  a 
staff  of  engineers  is  required  to  undertake  many  nov- 
elties at  once.  To  save  first  cost  and  to  keep  the  nov- 
elties in  the  ship  within  the  smallest  limits,  the  best 
plan  is  to  have  two  donkey  boilers.  Fire  them  either 
by  coal  or  oil,  depending  on  the  price,  and  drive  every- 
thing by  steam,  including  the  air  compressor  required 
to  manoeuvre  the  main  motor.  When  the  ship  runs 
several  days  continuously  and  the  motor  is  four-cycle, 
the  waste  gases  can  heat  the  donkey  boiler,  giving 
plenty  of  steam  for  steering  and  for  the  whistle.  The 
gain  is  about  1  ton  of  oil  per  day  for  ships  of  about 
6000  tons.  In  short  runs,  or  when  the  motor  has  to 
slow  down  often,  this  system  cannot  be  applied.  To 
drive  the  auxiliaries  by  compressed  air  has  not  proved 
a  success ;  the  air  compressors  must  be  too  large.  In 
tank  ships  it  is  good  practice  to  make  the  main  cargo- 
discharging  pump  centrifugal  and  drive  it  by  a  Diesel 


122  THE    DIESEL    ENGINE    IN    PRACTICE 

engine.  The  same  engine  can  then  drive  the  air  com- 
pressor for  manoeuvering.  This  system  is  slightly 
more  expensive  in  first  cost,  but,  when  the  ship  has 
to  unload  often,  it  is  cheaper  in  service  than  steam 
pumps.  It  also  permits  the  ship  to  unload  the  cargo 
when  it  would  be  dangerous  to  fire  a  steam  boiler. 

The  New  London  Ship  &  Engine  Company,  which 
started  operation  in  1910  have  built  a  large  number  of 
the  marine  Diesel  engines  produced  in  the  United 
States,  a  typical  type  is  shown  in  section  in  Fig.  30. 
Although  it  has  been  in  operation  only  a  compara- 
tively short  time,  its  record  to  date  is  as  follows : 

Engines  built  and  building 107 

No.  of  cylinders,  approximately 600 

Total   horsepower,    approximately 40,000 

Smallest    engine     60  h.p. 

Largest  engine   1,000  h.p. 

Their  efforts  have  been  directed  largely  toward 
engines  for  sub-marines.  The  engines  being  applied 
to  merchant  service  are  of  the  four-stroke-cycle  type 
with  the  cam  shaft  on  both  sides  of  the  cylinder  for  the 
operation  of  the  admission  and  exhaust  valve,  the  fuel 
valve  being  verticle  in  the  center  of  the  head. 

There  has  always  been  a  difference  between  the 
European  and  American  point  of  view,  due  to  condi- 
tions. It  may  be  stated,  in  general  terms,  that,  in 
Europe,  capital  was  scarce,  consequently,  the  Eu- 
ropean shipowner  considered  ultimate  saving,  and 
was  willing  to  pay  a  greater  first  cost  for  his 
propelling  plant,  if  the  operating  economy  would 
show  on  ultimate  gain.  In  the  United  States, 
the  shipping  business  has  never  been  given  much  en- 
couragement, and  those  who  have  gone  into  the  busi- 
ness have  had  to  seriously  consider  first  cost.     Fur- 


DIESEL    APPLIED    TO    MARINE    PURPOSES 


123 


Fig-.    30.     New  London  Ship  &  Engine  Co.  Engine. 


ibermore,  both  coal  and  oil  are  comparatively  cheap 
in  this  country.  Finally,  information  in  regard  to 
Diesel  engines  has  been  obtained  principally  from  the 
technical  description  of  foreign  vessels.  It  is  only 
comparatively  recently  that  Diesel-engined  ships  have 
visited  American  ports,  so  that  first-hand  information 
from  actual  observation  has  been  scarce.  A  further 
draw^back  to  American  development  has  been  the  lack 
of  trained  operators.  In  the  course  of  time,  the  basic 
advantages  will  be  realized  in  the  United  States  and 
the  necessary  trained  operators  will  be  developed. 


124  THE    DIESEL    ENGINE    IN    PRACTICE 

Many  ships  intended  for  trade  between  the  At- 
lantic and  Pacific  Coast,  through  the  Panama  Canal, 
are  being  fitted  with  to  burn  oil  under  their  boilers.  To 
one  acquainted  with  the  operation  of  a  Diesel  engine, 
this  seems  to  be  almost  a  wicked  waste.  The  same 
amount  of  the  same  fuel  used  in  a  Diesel  engine  would 
run  four  ships  instead  of  one,  or  would  carry  one  ship 
four  times  as  far. 

Probably  the  two-cycle  motor  will  eventually  be- 
come cheaper  to  manufacture  than  the  four-cycle  for 
the  same  power.  The  running  economy  of  the  four- 
stroke-cycle  is  the  greater,  especially  when  the  waste 
gases  are  passed  through  a  steam  donkey-boiler. 

The  cost  to  make  a  good  marine  engine  is,  and  will 
remain  probably,  about  1/3  higher  than  to  make  a  good 
reciprocating  steam-engine  and  boilers  of  the  same 
power,  but  this  higher  proce  is  partly  compensated  by 
the  cheaper  ship,  because  the  Diesel  engine  takes  up  less 
room  and  weight  than  the  steam  installations,  as  the 
boilers  are  omitted  and  the  bunkers  can  be  made  much 
smaller.  This  latter  saving  depends  on  the  distance 
or  intervals  between  the  places  where  it  is  economical 
to  replenish  the  bunkers. 

;  The  large  motor  ship  requires  fewer,  men  to  run 
than  the  large  steamship;  the  quality  of  the  men  must, 
however,  be  higher.  Difficulties  with  the  troublesome 
firemen  are  eliminated ;  but  the  motor  ship  if  not  well 
attended  to,  is  apt  to  require  more  repair  in  harbor 
than  the  steamship. 

Balancing  these  good  and  bad  qualities  of  motors 
and  steamships,  the  fuel  price  in  the  parts  of  the 
world  where  the  ship  has  to  run  will  generally  decide 
to   which   the   balance   will   incline.    In   special   cases. 


DIESEL.    APPLIED    TO    MARINE    PURPOSES         125 

however,  the  fuel  price  will  not  be  the  main  factor  to 
be  considered,  but  the  following  properties  of  the 
motor-driven  ship  are  of  greater  value.  That  it  does 
not  require  any  warming  up  of  boilers  or  engines,  even 
if  nobody  has  been  on  board  in  advance,  the  motor 
ship  can  start  at  full  speed  as  soon  as  the  oil  tanks 
are  filled.  That  it  is  possible  for  a  motor  ship  to 
bunker  only  at  very  long  intervals,  three  or  four  times 
longer  than  a  steamship.  And  last,  but  not  least,  that 
motor  ships  can  be  made  in  which  the  part  of  the  ship 
where  the  engines  are  placed  is  of  absolutely  the  same 
temperature  as  the  other  parts  of  the  ship.  In  hot 
climates  this  quality  will  go  far  to  turn  the  balance 
when  the  engineers  have  a  say  in  the  decision. 

Probably  the  worst  enemies  of  the  marine  Diesel 
engine,  during  the  past  ten  years,  have  been  the  over- 
enthusiastic  advocates.  Many  have  made  promises 
they  could  not  fulfill.  Others  have  built  and  installed 
engines  which  were  experiments.  New  firms  are  con- 
tinually entering  the  field,  little  realizing  that  the 
design  and  construction  of  these  engines  are  highly 
developed  specialties.  The  first  engines  produced  in 
this  way  are  generally  failures ;  and,  unfortunately 
the  good  and  the  bad  suffer  as  a  result.  The  experi- 
enced builders  approach  perfection  only  by  close  appli- 
cation, and  naturally  do  not  publish  all  of  the  practical 
points  which  they  develop  in  the  course  of  their  work. 
The  individual  or  firm  with  small  resources  is  taking 
a  desperate  chance  when  plunging  into  this  line  of 
work.  So,  also,  are  the  customers  who  buy  the  first 
engines  turned  out. 

The  Diesel  engine  as  applied  to  merchant  ships 
to   the   present  time  has  proved   that  this   engine,   if 


126 


THE    DIESEL    ENGINE    IN    PRACTICE 


well  designed,  well  made  and  well  attended  to,  is  re- 
liable enough  for  the  longest  voyages  and  is  at  least 
four  times  more  economical  in  fuel  consumption, 
weight  for  weight,  than  a  coal-fired  steamship,  or 
nearly  3  times  more  economical  than  an  oil-fired  steam- 
ship. 


240  I.  H.  P.  Southwark-Harris  Valveless  Engine, 
Diesel  Principle,  Marine  Type. 


CHAPTER  XII 
INTERNAL  COMBUSTION  ENGINES  AT  P.P.I.E. 

Naturally  internal  combustion  engines  occupied 
a  prominent  position  at  the  Panama-Pacific  Interna- 
tiona Exposition  and  were  the  feature  of  the  Palace 
of  Machinery. 

The  Mcintosh  Seymour  Corporation  of  Auburn, 
N.  Y.,  Busch-Sulzer  Bros. -Diesel  Engine  Company  of 
St.  Louis,  Mo.,  both  exhibited  engines  of  500  h.p.  ca- 
pacity direct  connected  to  electric  generators.  The  lat- 
ter company  supplied  direct  current  to  the  Exposition 
for  various  purposes  and  operated  throughout  the 
times  that  the  palace  was  open  to  the  public.  The  Mc- 
intosh Seymour  Corporation  operated  in  connection 
with  a  water  rheostat.  They  were  unfortunate  in  not 
having  their  engine  ready  for  operation  during  the 
earlier  periods  of  the  Exposition.  This  gave  the  Busch- 
Sulzer  Bros. -Diesel  Engine  Company  an  opportunity 
to  participate  in  the  opening  ceremonies.  The  expo- 
sition was  opened  by  wireless  from"  Washington,  a 
receiving  station  being  established  on  the  grounds  and 
the  wireless  impulse  closed  a  metallic  circuit  which 
was  connected  to  a  trip  on  the  Busch-Sulzer  engine. 
A  large  weight  attached  to  an  extension  of  the  start- 
ing lever  started  the  engine  when  President  Wilson 
pressed  the  button  3000  miles  away.  Both  of  these 
engines  demonstrated   their  ability  to  operate  on   all 


128 


THE    DIESEL    ENGINE    IN    PRACTICE 


kinds  of  load  and  their  reliability  was  tested  out  to 
a  large  degree.  The  accompanying  table  gives  the 
principal  dimensions  of  these  machines. 


Section    of   Mcintosh   &   Seymour    "A"    Frame    Engine. 


Busch- 

Sulzer      Mcintosh  & 

Bros.  Seymour     S'. 

Rating   500  500 

No.   cylinders    4  4 

Diameter    in     inches 19  18% 

Stroke    241/2  28  3/g 

R.p.m , 200  164 

Compressor    3-stage  2-stage 

Compression    in    lb 500  500 

Injector    pressire,    lb 600-800  600-800 

AVeight  per  h.p.,   lb 375  324 

Governs    by Control  Control 

of  of 

suction  stroke 

Air   starting    2   cyl.  1  cyl. 

Piston    water-cooled Yes  No 

Air   starting   pressure,    lb.  .800-850  800 

Piston   speed    816  2/3  780 


New 

Liondon 

&  E.  Co. 

Fulton. 

180 

50 

6 

3 

8 

8 

121/2 

9 

350 

400 

2-stage 

2-stage 

450 

500 

800 

825-975 

100 

100 

Control 

Control 

of 

of 

suction 

by-pass 

3  cyl. 

2  cyl. 

No 

No 

750 

700-1000 

875 

600 

INTERNAL    COMBUSTION    ENGINES    AT    P.  P.  I.  E.    129 

The  New  London  Ship  &  Engine  Company  of  Gro- 
ton.  Conn.,  exhibited  a  vertical  marine  engine,  the 
power  from  which  was  utilized  to  drive  a  pump  in  the 
exhibit  of  the  Pelton  Water  Wheel  Company.  This 
engine  is  of  the  type  manufactured  in  America  for 
marine  purposes  and  is  somewhat  similar  to  the  large 
number  of  engines  supplied  by  this  company  to  the 
United  States  Navy  for  submarines.  The  engine  was 
operated  at  frequent  intervals  and  it  typifies  one  of 
the  best  types  of  marine  Diesel  engines  in  this  country. 

The  Fulton  Engine  Company  of  Erie,  Pa.,  had  a 
small  engine  on  exhibit.  The  engine,  however,  was 
not  erected  so  that  it  could  operate  so  it  was  unable 
to  demonstrate  its  ability  in  this  regard.  The  details 
of  the  machine  seem  to  be  carefully  worked  out  and 
the  workmanship  and  finish  show  care  and  precision. 

These  constitute  the  four  examples  of  high  com- 
pression engines,  two  stationary,  and  two  marine,  and 
although  the  American  Diesel  Engine  Company  had 
its  engines  on  exhibition  and  in  operation  at  St. 
Louis  in  1904,  this  Exposition  was  the  first  oppor- 
tunity for  any  number  of  Diesel  manufacturers  to 
exhibit  their  product.  Many  manufacturers  were  han- 
dicapped by  the  great  distance  from  their  factories  and 
the  consequent  expensive  freight,  but  those  who  did 
exhibit  had  the  opportunity  of  showing  their  product 
to  a  most  appreciative  and  receptive  public  and  were 
fully  repaid  for  their  expense. 

The  low  compression,  or  semi-Diesels,  were  rep- 
resented by  The  Bessemer  Engine  Company  of  Grove 
City.  Pa.,  Mietz  &  Weiss  Company  of  New  York.  The 
first  of  these  exhibitors  showed  a  number  of  engines, 
one  being  direct  connected  to  electric  generator  sup- 


130 


THE    DIESEL    ENGINE    IN    PRACTICE 


INTERNAL    COMBUSTION    ENGINES    AT    P.  P.  I.  E.    131 

plying  electricity  to  the  Exposition,  another  engine 
of  the  stationary  type  drove  a  centrifugal  pump 
through  a  rope  drive.  These  engines  operated  on  Cal- 
ifornia fuel  oil  similar  to  that  burned  in  Diesels  and 
operated  entirely  satisfactorily.  There  were  also  ex- 
hibited by  this  company  several  smaller  engines  of 
different  types,  principally  for  operation  on  natural 
gas. 

The  August  Mietz  Company  showed  a  three- 
cylinder,  vertical  engine  connected  to  electric  gen- 
erator and  a  reversible  marine  engine  of  three  cylin- 
ders, both  of  these  engines  being  in  operation,  the  for- 
mer carrying  considerable  electrical  load.  This  com- 
pany also  showed  a  horizontal  stationary  engine  and  a 
vertical  engine  direct  connected  to  an  air  compressor. 
These  latter,  however,  were  seldom  in  operation. 

In  all  there  were  six  companies  exhibiting  in  the 
Diesel  and  semi-Diesel  class,  three  of  whom  are  ex- 
clusive manufacturers  of  stationary  engines  and  two 
exclusive  manufacturers  of  marine  engines,  one  mak- 
ing both   stationary  and   marine   types. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  on  account  of  the  fire 
hazard  the  Diesels  and  semi-Diesels  were  the  only 
internal  combustion  engines  to  operate  on  their  regular 
type  of  fuel.  The  carburetted  type  of  engines  having 
to  rely  upon  compressed  air,  city  gas  or  motors  for 
driving  power  within  the  Exposition  Palaces. 


INDEX 


"A"  Frame  Engine,  66-70-71. 
Acceptance  Test,  27. 
Admission  Valve,  21-22. 
Admission  Valve  Cage,   58. 
Adjustments  of  Bearings,  50. 
Adjustments  of  Valve  Rods,  58. 
Advantages,      Marine      Engine, 

111. 
Air    Compressors,    79. 
Air  Compressors,   Belted,    23. 
Air   Compressors,    Ingersoll- 

Rand,   21-22. 
Air  Compressors,   Reavell,    81. 
Air  Compressors,   Three-Stage, 

82. 
Air  Compressors,    Two-Stage, 

21,    25,    222. 
Air  Bottles,  22,  44,  45. 
Air,   Spray  or  Injection,  46,   47, 

55. 
Air,   Scavenging,    120. 
Alps,   Tyrolean,   24,   25. 
Altitude,   Effect,   39. 
Allis-Chalmers  Mfg.  Co.,  77. 
Appearance  of  Exhaust,   46. 
American  Diesel  Engine  Co., 

9,   21,   25. 
"Arabiem,"   112. 
"Arum,"   119. 
Ash,   32,   37. 
Asphaltum,    34. 
Atmospheric  Pressure  and 

Densitv,    39. 
Atomizer,    48,    52,    68,    74. 
Attention  of  Diesel,  29. 
August  Meitz  Company,   131. 
Auxiliaries,  Marine,  121. 
Available  Fuel  Oil,  34. 


Balance,  Heat,  18. 

Baldwin     Locomotive     Works, 

24. 
Ball  Bros.  Glass  Works,  24. 
Bases  of  Economy,  Marine,  116. 
Baume,  Degrees,  31. 
Bearings,   24.   42,   50,    70,   72,   83. 
Bearing,   Adjustments,    50. 
Bearing,   Clearance,   50. 
Bearing,   Outer,    84. 
Bessemer   Gas    Engine    Co.,    88, 

129. 


Blohm   and   Voss,   120. 
Bolinder,   119. 
Bottles,   Air,   22,   44,   45. 
Broken   Shafts,  43. 
Burmeister  and  Wain  Co.,   112. 
Burning  Point,   Fuel  Oil,    34. 
Busch-Sulzer   Bros.,  72,  127-128. 


C 


Cage,  Admission  Valve,  51. 
Cam  Shaft,  69,  71,  76. 
Carbonaceous    Fuels,    31. 
Care  of  Diesel  Engine,  29. 
Carel  Bros.,   82. 
Carnot's  Law,  19. 
Centrifugal   Oilers,   81. 
Charges,    Fixed,    96,    105. 
"Christian  X,"   120. 
Cleanliness,   41. 
Clearance  in  Bearings,  50. 
Clearance  in  Cylinders,  24. 
Coal   Competition,   99, 
Coal  Oil,  Injection,  47. 
Coal  Tar,  31. 
Colymas,   N.   Y.,    65. 
Commercial  Situation,   93. 
Comparison,  Marine,  111. 
Composition  of  Fuel  Oil,  34. 
Compression,   11. 
Compression    Pressure,    19,    89, 

91. 
Compression   Release,   76. 
Compression   Rings,   24. 
Connecting  Rods,  24,  70,  84. 
Consumption,    Fuel,   16,    17,    26, 

27,    29,    33,    40,    64. 
Continuous    Operation,    30,    62, 

65. 
Cost,   12. 

Cost  of  Electricity,  103. 
Cost  of  Ice,  95. 
Cost  of  Marine  Engines,   121, 

124. 
Cost  of  Repairs  of  Diesel 

Engine,    97,    101,    103,    105. 
Cost  of  Turbine  Plant,   97. 
Corliss  Engine,  99. 
Corliss   Engine   Works,   22. 
Crank  Case,  Cleaning,  49. 
Crank  Case,  Inclosed,  70,  72. 
Crank  Pins,   72. 
Cycle,   Four-Stroke,  10. 
Cycle,  Two-Stroke,    13. 


134 


INDEX 


Cylinder, 
Cylinder, 
Cylinder, 
Cylinder, 
Cylinder, 
72,  28. 
Cylinder, 
Cylinder, 
Cylinder, 
Cylinder, 
Cylinder, 


Capacity,   40. 
Cooling,   19. 
Dimensions,  21,  22,  71. 
Liners,  24,  62,  75. 
Lubrication,    55,    68, 

Rebored,    62. 
Scavenger,   16,   121. 
Starting,   24,   69. 
Temperatures,  20. 
Water-Jacketed,    24. 

D 


Deck  Machinery,   121. 
Degrees,   Baume,   31.  . 
De   La   Vergne,    87. 
Density,   Atmospheric,   39. 
Depreciation,  93. 
Diagram,   indicator,  14,  15. 
Diesel,    Dr.    Rodolph,    5. 
Diesel   Engine   Co.,   American, 

21. 
Diesel  Engine   Cost, 

97,    101,    103,    105. 
Diesel,   Semi-,  86, 
Dimensions,  Cylinder,  21,  22,  71. 
Direct   Connected  Generator,  28 
Direct   Reversible  Marine 

Engines,    109. 
Diversified  Load  Factor,  93. 
Donaldsonville,   La.,   63. 
Donkey    Boiler,   121. 
Double  Acting  Semi-Diesel,  89. 
Dow  Pump  &  Diesel   Engine 

Co.,   80. 

Economic  Results,  Marine,  115, 

116. 
Economy,   Steam   Turbine,    97. 
Effect   of   Altitude,   39. 
Efficiency,   Mechanical,    16,    19. 
Efficiency,   Reduced,    61. 
Efficiency,  Thermal,   16,   19,   60. 
Electric  Transmission,   93. 
Electricity,   Cost   of,   103. 
Engine,   Rating,   40. 
Engine  Tests,    24,   25. 
Engines,   "A"   Frame, 

66,    67,    70,   71. 
Engines,   Corliss,   99. 
Engines,   Horizontal,    66. 
Engines,  Inclosed  Crank  Case, 

70,   72. 
Engines,  Vertical,  66,  67. 
Equivalent  Density,  40. 
Exhaust  Valve,   21,   52. 
Expense,  Fuel, 

29,    93,    97,    101,    105. 
Expense,  Operating,  102. 


First  Plants,   21. 
First   Engine,   8,   5,    106. 
Fixed  Charges,   96,    105. 
Fluctuating    Loads,    26. 
Fly  Wheel,  Split,  84. 
Forced  Lubrication,   42. 
Foundations,   41. 
Foundation  Bolts,  41. 
Four-Stroke  Cycle,  10,  124. 
Frame  of  Engine,   61. 
Fuel,  Carbonaceous,   31. 
Fuel    Consumption, 

16,    17,    26,    27,    29,    33,    37,    40, 

64,    86. 
Fuel    Expense,    29,    93,    97,    101, 

105. 
Fuel  Needle,  24.  51,  52. 
Fuel  Nozzle,   Open,   77,   80. 
Fuel  Oil,  34,  37. 
Fuel   Pump,  53,  69,  71,  72,  77. 
Fuel  Pump,   Discharge  Valve, 

54. 
Fuel  Pump,  Marine,  109. 
P^uel   Pump,    Priming,    44. 
Fuel,   Limitations,   31. 
Fuel,   Price,    34,    37,    38,    101. 
Fuel,   Production,   38. 
Fuel  Saving,   29,   63. 
Fuel,  Straining,   54, 
Fuel,   Supply,    31. 
Fuel,   Uniformity,  36, 
Fulton  Iron   Works,   71. 
Fulton     Engine     Company     of 

Erie,    129. 
Fulton-Tosi,    71. 

G 

Generators,  40. 

Generators,  Direct  Connected, 

28. 
Generators,   Parallel 

Operation,    41,    65. 
Generators,   Rating,    40. 
Gears,  Sr)iral,  77. 
Gravity  of  Fuel  Oil,  34,  47. 
Gravity,   Specific,    35,    36. 
Grinding  Valves,   48. 
Gorham  Silver  Co.,   48. 
Governor,   61. 
Governing,    61. 

H 

Hamburg-American  Line,  20. 

Hazard  of  Storage  of  Oil,  37. 

Heads,  Removable,   22. 

Heat  Balance,   18 

Heat  Value   of   Oil,    34,   37. 

Hesselman  Atomizer,   68. 

History,   5. 

Horizontal   Engines,  66 

Hydro-carbon   Fuels.   31. 


INDEX 


135 


Ice,  Cost  of,  95. 
Ignition,  Premature,  53. 
Inclosed  Crank  Case,  70,  72. 
Indicator  Diagram,  14,  15. 
Indicator  Diagram  Loop,  16. 
Injection,   Air  Pressure,  55. 
Injection   of  Coal  Oil,  47. 
Insurance,  96. 

K 

Key  West  Electric  Co.,  28. 
•Kina,"    112. 


Labor,   101,   105. 

Large    Sizes,    9,    18. 

Law,   Carnot,   19. 

Letzenmayer   Patents,    77. 

Life  of  the  Diesel,   60,   97. 

Limitations  of  Fuel  Oil,   31. 

Liners,   Cylinder,   24,   62,   75. 

Load   Factor,  93,  96. 

Load   Factor,   Diversified,    93. 

Loads,   Fluctuating,  26. 

Loop  in  Indicator  Diagram,  16. 

Lost  Motion,   30. 

Louisiana   Purchase    Exposi- 
tion,  24. 

Lubrication,    Cylinder,    55,    68, 
72,   78. 

Lubrication,   Forced,   42,   90. 

Lubrication,   Splash,    22,    42. 

Lubricating  Oil,   Expense,   105. 

Lubricating  Oil,   Pressure,    74. 

Lubricating  Oil   Pump,   55,   73. 

Lyons  Atlas   Co.,   70. 

M 

McCarthy,   Norman,    70. 
Mcintosh,    Seymour    Corp.,    67, 

127-128. 
McPherson,   James,   22. 
Maintenance,   97,   102,   105. 
Maneuvering,  Marine,   119,   122. 
Manhattan   Transit   Coj,    21. 
Marine  Engines,    Advantages, 

111. 
Marine  Engines,    Auxiliaries, 

121. 
Marine   Engines,    Bases    of 

Economy,    116. 
Marine   Engines,   Cost,   121. 
Marine   Engines,   Cost 

Comparison,    111. 
Marine   Engines,  Economic 

Results,   115. 
Marine  Engines,   Electric 

Drive,  121. 
Marine   Engines,   Fuel     Pump, 

109. 


Marine  Engines,  Operators, 

124. 
Mechanical   Efficiency,   16,   19. 
Meitz    &   Weiss    Co.,    25,    129, 
Mexican   Oil,   35. 
"Monte  Penedo,"  117. 
Motion,    Lost,    30. 

N 

Needle,   Fuel,  24,   51,   52. 
New  London   Ship   &   Engine 

Co.,    122. 
Nobel  Bros.,   106. 
Nordberg   Mfg.    Co.,    82. 
Nozzle,   Open,    77,   SO. 
Nurnburg,   107. 

O 

Oil,    (See   Fuel   Oil),   31. 
Oil,   Burning   Marine,   124. 
Oil,   Mexican  Crude,  34,  35. 
Oil,   Production,    38. 
oilers.   Centrifugal,    81. 
Operation,   Continuous,    30,    63, 

65. 
Operations   of  Starting,    43,   44, 

76. 
Operating  Expense,  102. 
Operators,  Marine,    124. 
Open  Fuel  Nozzle,  77,  80. 
Otto   Gas   Engine   Co.,    25. 
Outer    Bearing,    84. 
Oxygen  in  Cylinder,  40. 


Panama-Pacific     International 

Exposition,    127. 
Parallel  Operation,   26,   65,   41. 
Parts,   Spare,   47,   48. 
Patents,   6-8. 

Patents,   Lietzenmayer,    77. 
Pins,   Crank,   72. 
Pins,  Wrist,  72. 
Piston    Head,    Removable,    80. 
Piston,   Rings,    49. 
Piston,   Step,    119. 
Piston,   Trunk,  107. 
Plants,  First,  21. 
Polar    Diesel,    119. 
Ports,   Scavenging,    19. 
Powder   House,   Typical,    25. 
Prairie  Pebble  Phosphate  Co., 

26. 
Pressure,   Atmospheric,   39. 
Pressure,   Compression,    19. 
Premature   Ignition,   53. 
Pressure,   Lubricating   Oil,    74. 
Pressure,   Semi-Diesels,  86. 
Pressure.   Spray,    44,    46. 
Price,   92. 

Price  of  Fuel  Oil,  34,  38. 
Priming  Fuel  Pump,  44. 


136 


INDEX 


Production  of  Oil,  38. 
Progress  in  Europe,    8. 
Progress  in  the  U.  S.,   8. 
Pump,   Fuel  Oil,  72,  77. 
Pump,  Lubricating,   55,    73. 
Pump  Plunger,   48. 
Pumping  Water,  30. 


Steam  Turbine,  96. 
Step   Piston,  119. 
Submarines,    122. 
Sulphur  in  Oil,   32,  34,  37. 
Sulzer  Bros.,   107. 
Sulzer  Bros.,  Busch-,  72. 
Supply  of  Fuel  Oil,  31. 


R 

Rating  of  Engines,   40,   70. 

Rating  of  Generators,  40. 

Rebored  Cylinders,  62. 

Reduction  of  Efficiency,  61. 

Release   Compression,    76. 

Reliability,   60,   62. 

Removable  Piston  Head,  80. 

Repairs,  Cost,  37. 

Residue  in  Fuel  Oil,   34,  37. 

Reversible,  Direct,  109. 

Ring,  Compression,    24. 

Ring,   Piston,  49. 

Ring,   Wiper,   24. 

Rocker  Arm,   72. 

Rods,    Connecting,    24,    70,    84. 


Safety  Valves,  52. 

Salt  Water  Cooling,  84. 

Saving  in  Fuel,  29,   63. 

Scavenger  Cylinder,  16,  120. 

Scavenging  Ports,   19. 

Semi-Diesel,  Auxiliary 
Chamber,    86. 

Semi-Diesel,  Double  Acting,  89. 

Semi-Diesel,   Fuel     Consump- 
tion,  86. 

Semi-Diesel,  Pressure,   86,   89. 

Semi-Diesel,  Steam  Scav- 
enging,  91. 

Semi-Diesel,  Torch,  91. 

Semi-Diesel,  Two-Stroke- 
Cycle,   89. 

"Sebastian,"    119. 

"Secundus,"    120. 

Shafts,  Broken,  119. 

Shafts,  Cam,  69,  71,  76. 

Shafts,  Main,  70,  71,  83. 

"Siam,"    112. 

Snow  Steam  Pump  Works,  79. 

Soare  Parts,   47,   48. 

Specific  Gravity,  35,  36. 

Spiral  Gears,  77. 

Splash   Lubrication,   22,   42 

Split  Flywheel,  84. 

S'pray  Air,  47. 

Spray  Pressure,   44,   46,   55. 

Springs,  48. 

Starting  Cylinder,   24. 

Starting  Operations, 
43,   44,    76,   119. 

Starting  Valve,    43. 


Tar,  Coal,  31. 
Taxes,   96. 

Temperature  in  Cylinders,  20. 
Tests   of  Engines,   26. 
Tests  of  Fuel  Oil,  32,  33. 
Texas   &   Pacific   Co.,    63. 
Texas  Power  &  Light  Co.,  26. 
Thermal  Efficiency,  16,  19,  60. 
Timing   of   Valves,    56. 
Torch,  Starting,  91. 
Tosi,   Fulton,  71. 
Troubles,    29. 
Trunk  Piston,   107. 
Turbine,   Economy,   97. 
Turbine,  Plant   Cost,    97. 
Turbine,   Steam,   96. 
Two-Stroke-Cycle,    13,    89,    118, 

119,   124. 
Typical  Power  House,  25. 
Tyrolean  Alps,  24,  25. 

U 

Uniformity  of  Fuel  Oil,  36. 
United   States   Geological 
Survey,  38. 


Valves,  Admission,   21,   24,   47. 
Valves,   Exhaust,    21,    52. 
Valves,  Fuel,    21. 
Valves,  Gear,   107. 
Valve,  Grinding,   48. 
Valve,  Rod  Adjustment,   58. 
Valve,  Safety,   52. 
Valve,   Timing,    55. 
Vertical    Engines,    66. 
"Vulcanus,"  109. 

W 

Wafires    97 

Water,'  Cooling,   24,   28,    44,   46, 

84. 
Water,  Injection,  89. 
Water  in   Fuel  Oil,   32,   34,   37. 
Water  Jacket,    24. 
Water  Pumping,  30,   101. 
Werkspoor  of  Amsterdam,  118. 
Williams-Robson,  80. 
Wiper  Rings,  24. 
Wrist  Pins,   72. 


Westinghouse  Electric 
Generators 

Are    Especially   Suitable    For 

Direct   Connection 

to 

Diesel  and  Semi -Diesel 
Engines 

Both  Alternating  and  Direct 
Current  Types 


Westinghouse  Electric 
&  Manufacturing  Co. 

East  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

Offices  in  all  principal  cities 


BORNE,  SCRYMSER  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK 

Diesel  Engine  Cylinder  Oil 

No.  1  Air  Compressor 
Cylinder  Oil 

Manufacturers  of  special  oils 

for  the  lubrication 

of 

DIESEL  ENGINES 


We  arc  familiar  with  the  lubricating 

requirements  of  all  types 

of 

DIESEL  ENGINES 


ADVISE  US  THE  TYPE  OF 
YOUR  ENGINE  AND  WE 
WILL  QUOTE  YOU  ON 
THE  SPECIAL  OIL  ADAPTED 
TO  THIS  ENGINE. 

WE  HAVE  HAD  MANY  YEARS' 
EXPERIENCE  IN  SUCCESSFULLY 
LUBRICATING  DIESEL  ENGINES 
AND  OFFER  OUR  SPECIALTIES 
FOR  THESE  ENGINES  AS  BE- 
ING MOST  EFFICIENT  AND 
ECONOMICAL. 


BORNE,  SCRYMSER  COMPANY 

80  SOUTH   STREET 

NEW  YORK 

Works: 
Elizabethport,  N.  J. 


MclNTOSH  &  SEYMOUR 

DIESEL  TYPE  OIL  ENGINES 


TYPE  B  ENGINE 

Engines  of  this  type  are  built  in  sizes  up  to  1 000 
B.  H.  P.  The  "A"  column  type  is  built  only  in 
a  500  horsepower  size,  with  four  cylinders. 
Both  types  are  built  in  stock  lots,  therefore  assur- 
ing prompt  delivery.  Many  plants  are  now 
operating  and  giving  most  satisfactory  service. 
Send  for  Descriptive  Bulletins 

MclNTOSH  &  SEYMOUR  CORPORATION 

AUBURN,    N.  Y. 

SOLE  AMERICAN  LICENSEES  SWEDISH  DIESEL  ENGINE  COMPANY 
Branch    Offices 

New    Yor^k    City,    50    Church    St        El    Paso,    609   Mills  Bldg. 


Kansas   City,    221    Dwight   Bldg. 
Washington,    Southern    Bldg. 
Charlotte,  N.  C,  1100  Realty  Bldg. 


Dallas,    223   Slaughter  Bldg. 
San    Francisco,    Room.    514    Sheldon 
Bldg. 


THE  BEST  PUEL 

FOR  ENGINES 


Of  THE 


Diesel  Type 

DIESOL 


Afloat  or  Ashore: 

This  oil  has  demonstrated  its 
efficiency,  in  the  various  types 
of  Diesel  Engines,  ranging  up 
to  the  largest  stationary  plants 
— and  in  motor  ships  up  to 
12, 000  tons  capacity. 

UNION  OIL  COMPANY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

Los  ANGELES         San  Francisco 

All  Principal  Cities  Pacific  Coast 

NEW  YORK  HONOLULU  PANAMA 


LUBRICATING  THE 
DIESEL  ENGINE  — 

Because  of  the  mechanical  conditions  involved,  and  the 
wide  range  of  conditions  that  must  be  met,  the  selection 
of  the  proper  lubricant  for  the  Diesel  Engine  is  of  par- 
amount   importance. 

The  Engineers  of  The  Texas  Company  have  had  an  en- 
viable opportunity  for  the  study  of  the  Diesel  Engine, 
in  this  country^  as  well  as  abroad. 

We   have   developed   in 

TEXACO  URSA  OIL 

a  lubricant  of  unusual  suitability  for  this  class  of  work, 
this  one  oil  taking  care  of  the  lubrication  of  the  power 
•  cylinders,  air  compressor,  and  the  general  lubrication  of 
the  machine.  TEXACO  URSA  OIL  is  an  exceptionally 
rich  product,  with  excellent  body,  and  can  be  used  with 
great  economy.  It  is  unusually  low  in  carbon  content, 
high  in  boiling  point,  and  low  in  flash,  three  essential 
qualifications  for  internal  combustion  engines. 

All  together,  it  is  a  product  admirably  adapted  for  Diesels 
of  all  types — and  many  of  the  leading  manufacturers 
have  welcomed  the  opportunity  of  being  able  to  advise 
the  use  of  an  oil  so  thoroughly  suited  to  their  engines. 

We  will  be  glad  to  furnish  any  further  information  on 
TEXACO  URSA  OIL,  or  any  lubricant  you  may  require. 

HOUSTON  THE  TEXAS  COMPANY  n^wyork 

DEPARTMENT  "D" 
19  BATTERY  PL., 
NEW  YORK   CITY 

Distributing:   pointts   in   principal   cities. 


FULTON-TOSI 

Slow  Speed  Heavy  Duty 

DIESEL  OIL  ENGINES 

in  the  Preferred  Vertical  "A"  Frame  Type 
Four  Cycle.  Built  on  the  Unit  Plan  in  One, 
Two,  Three,  Four,  Five  or  Six  Cylinders,  30 
to  1200  Brake  Horse  Power. 

Full  information  on  request 

FULTON  IRON  WORKS 

ST.  LOUIS 


THE  STANDARD 

FUEL  OIL  ENGINE 

(DIESEL  TYPE) 

A  sturdy  and  dependable  engine  that  insures 
ample  power  for  your  plant  at  a  very  low  cost. 
Extremely  simple  to  operate  as  the  number  of 
working  parts  has  been  reduced  to  a  minimum. 
Unexcelled  in  economy  and  regulation. 
WRITE  FOR  BULLETIN 

The  Standard  Fuel  Oil  Engine  Co. 

WILLOUGHBY.  OHIO.  U.  S.  A. 


BrONS-ATLAS   DIESEL  ENGINES 


^Jik 


IJ^QlllMTLAS  G OMPANY 

IliiiiijijlANAPO  LIS.  U.S.A. 

sirtili-ATLAS   DIESEL  ENGINES 


The  4-B-125  Diesel  Unit,  520  Brake  Horsepower 

BUSCH-SULZER  BROS.-DIESEL 
ENGINE  CO. 

ST.     LOUIS,     MO. 


MINNEAPOLIS, 
754  Plymouth  Bide 


SAN  rRANCISCO, 
419  RialtoBldc 


SOUTHWEST    SALES    AGENTS: 

YORK  ENGINEERING  &  SUPPLY  COMPANY 
Houston        CI  Paso        Fort  Worth        New  Orleans 

The    Original    Manufacturers    of 

Diesel  Eng^ines 

in  America 

Write  for  Performance  Bulletins 


ECONOMICAL     POWER 

can  best  be  secured  by  using  an  engine  which  will  utilize  to  the  fullest 
extent  the  phenomenal  heat  unit  content  of  our  California  fuel  oils. 
Being  entirely  free  from  delicate  complicated  carburetion  and  igni- 
tion  devices   the 

Ml  &W  Oil  Engine 

delivers  maximum  power  from  a  given  volume  of  fuel,  and  may  be 
depended  upon  to  render  its  full  rated  output  under  the  most  difficult 
service  conditions. 

Being  of  the  medium  compression,  medium  speed  type,  excessive 
bearing  pressures,  severe  stresses  on  the  entire  structure  and  lubri- 
cating troubles  are  avoided.  These  engines  are  of  the  two-stroke 
cycle  type,  and  since  the  fuel  is  sprayed  directly  into  the  combustion 
chamber  just  before  completion  of  the  compression  stroke,  there  can 
be  no  loss  of  fuel  through  crank  case  leakage  or  through  the  exhaust 
ports. 

M.  &  W.  ENGINES  require  no  auxiliaries,  high  pressure  air  com- 
pressors, boilers,  coal  bunkers,  producers  and  the  like.  They  are 
built  in  horizontal  stationary  types  in  sizes  from  2  to  300  hp.; 
vertical  stationary  type  in  sizes  from  2  to  400  h.p.,  and  in  vertical 
marine  type  in  sizes  from  2  to  600  hp.,  the  marine  engine,  45  to  600 
hp.  being  direct  reversible  and  requiring  no  reverse  gears  whatever. 
For  complete  detailed  information,  apply  to  our  San  Francisco  repre- 
sentative, Mr.  Julius  Roos,  or  direct  to 

August  Mietz  Machine  Works 

128  JVfott  street  New  York   71-20 


1.  Main  or  Workias  Cylinder. 

2.  Main  or  Working  Piston. 

3.  Scavenging   and    Air    Starting 

Cylinder. 


5.  ScaveM^ig  Air  Inlet  Valve. 

6.  Scavenging  Air  Outlet  Passage, 

Starting  Air  Inlet  Passage. 

7.  Scavenging  Air  Delivery  Valve. 

8.  Scavenging    Air   Manifold,  be- 

tween Adjacent  Cylinders. 

9.  Scavenging  Air  Inlet  to  Work- 

ing Cylinder. 
9 A.  Scavenging  Air  Inlet  Ports. 

10.  Air-operated  Intercepting  Valve 

for  Air  Starting. 

11.  Outlet  for  Starting  Air. 

12.  Silencer    for  Starting  Air  Ex- 

haust   and    Scavenging    Air 
Inlet. 

13.  Vents  for  Housing  Fumes. 

14.  Injection  Air  Storage  Bottle. 

15.  Removable  Front  Columns. 

16.  Cam  Shaft 

17.  Atomizer    Actuating    Rockers 

(one  Ahead,  one  Astern). 

18.  Radius  or  Atomizer  Push  Rods 
'  (one  Ahead,'  one  Astern). 

^3  19.  Atomizer   Levers    (one   Ahead, 
'■^  one  Astern). 

30.  Atomizer  Spindle. 

21.  Cylinder  Head. 

22.  Exhaust  Pipe. 

22A.  Exhaust  Outlet  Ports. 

23.  Wrist  Pin. 

24.  Connecting  Rod. 

25.  Crank  Pin. 

26.  Crank  Shaft. 

27.  Bed  Plate. 

28.  Housing. 

29.  Light  Sheet    Steel   Removable 

Fronts. 

30.  Floating  Packing  Rings. 

31.  Crank  Pit  Drains  to  Filter. 

32.  Injection  Air  from  Compressor. 

33.  By-pass  to  Starting  Bottles. 


Section  of  Southwark-Harris 
Marine  Engine 


SOUTHWARK-HARRIS 

Va(vcicss  Diesel-Type  Reversible 

MARINE  ENGINES 


TWO  STROKE  CYCLE  WITH  STEP 
PISTONS  PERMITTING  STARTING 
OR  REVERSING  UNDER  LOAD  IN 
5  SECONDS  WITH  AN  AIR  PRES- 
SURE OF  ONLY  175  LBS  PER  SQ.  IN. 


STANDARD  GAS  ENGINE  CO. 

SAN  PRANCISCO,  CAL 

EXCLUSIVE    REPRESENTATIVES 


BRANCH   AT  ASTORIA,   OREGON    

Principal    Agencies 

PACIFIC  NET  &  TWINE  CO Seattle,   Wash. 

MARINE   ENGINE   &   SUPPLY   CO Los    Angeles,  Cal 

A.  COGGESHALL Eureka,   Cal 

G.    BREGANTE    San    Diego,   Cal. 

GEO.   F.   FOREST Juneau,    Alaska 

NORTHERN  MACHINE  WORKS Ketchikan,   Alaska 

HONOLULU  IRON  WORKS Honolulu,   T.    H. 

EDWARD    LIPSETT Vancouver,    B.    C. 

LIPSETT,  CUNNINGHAM  CO Prince  Rupert,  B.   C. 

KRUSE  &   BANKS North   Bend,    Oregon 


Correct  Fuel  and  Lubricant 
for  Diesel  Engines — 

CALOL  FUEL  OIL 

The  Gold  Medal  Product 

Received  highest  awards  at  San  Francisco 
and  San  Diego  Expositions. 


The  SCIENTIFIC  oil,  with  characteristics 
definitely  determined  for  Diesel  Eng^ines 

Calol  Diesel  Engine  Oil 

A  heavy  bodied,  clear,  light  amber  oil  es- 
pecially adapted  for  the  lubrication  of  Diesel 
eng^ines,  includingr  lubrication  of  the  air  com- 
pressor, cylinders,  and  all  external  parts. 

These    oils    are    supplied    from    storage 
at    the    following  points: 

Richmond,  Cal.  Bakersfield,  Cal. 

San  Francisco,  Cal.       Seattle,  Wash. 

El  Segundo,  Cal.  Point  Wells,  Puget  Sound,  Wash. 

Standard  CHI  Company 

(California) 
200  BUSH  STREET  SAN  FRANCISCO 


i-  ^' 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  BATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 


AN  INITIAL  FINE  OF  25  CENTS 

WILL  BE  ASSESSED  FOR  FAILURE  TO  RETURN 
THIS  BOOK  ON  THE  DATE  DUE.  THE  PENALTY 
WILL  INCREASE  TO  SO  CENTS  ON  THE  FOURTH 
DAY  AND  TO  $1.00  ON  THE  SEVENTH  DAY 
OVERDUE. 


oorigisM 


FEB     9    1944 


JAN  -  ^  m 


JUN  22    1944 


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?2^ay'59CS 


341237 


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UNIVERSITY  OF  CAUFORNIA  LIBRARY 


